Arab academy for science,

Technology &maritime transport

MT 261

THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

By
Capt. Farid Fouda
Eng. Yasser Gabara
1
Capt. Sameh rashed
 THE MAGNETIC COMPASS
1. INTRODUCTION

Magnetic compass is a navigational instrument for indicating direction relative to the earth’s
magnetic poles. It consists of a magnetized pointer (needle) usually marked on the north
end, free to align itself with earth’s magnetic field.

The face of the compass generally high lights the cardinal points of North, South, East, and
West. Often compasses are built as a standalone seabed instrument with a magnetized bar
or needle turning freely upon a pivot, or moving in a fluid (thus able to point in northern and
southerly direction.

The superiority of the present day compass results from a better knowledge of the laws of
magnetism which govern the behavior of the compass, and from greater precision in
construction. So to understand the concept of the marine magnetic compass we must study
the magnetism (as general), the earth magnetism and ship magnetism.

2. THE MAGNETISM

2.1. THE MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The reason why iron and steel can become magnetized as described, and also why each part
of a magnet, when divided, forms a complete magnet in itself, is counted for by the
molecular theory of magnetism. This assumes that the molecules, of which magnetic
substances are composed, are themselves small magnets, each having two poles. These
molecules are normally in a state of disorder, and the whole body is not then a magnet; if,
however by some means such as those described above, the molecules are forced to
arrange themselves in a regular manner with all their red poles in one direction and all their
blue poles in the opposite direction, the whole body becomes a magnet with a red pole near
one end and a blue pole near the other, as in Fig (1).

Fig (1), Molecular magnets have random direction Molecular magnets are Aligned Exactly

The molecular theory of magnetism in this simple form is not sufficient to explain all the
facts now known about magnetism and it has been modified and added to until it has
developed into the domain theory of ferromagnetism.

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 2.2. DOMAINS THEORY AS APPLIED TO THE FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

The ferromagnetic substances, iron, nickel, and others, have already been mentioned as
being exceptional for the strength of their magnetism. The atom of these elements is such
that there are a few electrons whose spine magnetic moments are not compensated for by
any of the others. The atom as a whole, therefore, has a magnetic moment. In the
ferromagnetic there is an interaction between the atoms which results in a large number of
atoms close to one another having their magnetic axes aligned. The space occupied by such
a group of atom is known as a domain , if a large number of these domains have their
magnetic axes pointing in one direction than in any other direction , then we have a
permanent magnet .if a piece of iron is not a permanent magnet then the magnetic axis of
the domain are arranged haphazardly.

2.3. MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIAL

a piece of material is said to be magnetic If it is capable of being magnetised and their

magnetisation is easy to measure , if the material magnetised only so slightly that their
magnetisation is difficult to measure, then it is said to be a non-magnetic material.

2.4. THE SIMPLE MAGNET AND ITS POLES

Any material produces a magnetic field around it and capable of attracting iron called
magnet. as in fig (2), If a bar magnet is mounted in such a way that it free to rotate like a
compass needle, one end will turn towards the magnetic north and the other end to the
south .The north – seeking end is usually called simply the North (red) pole or positive pole,
and the south – seeking end called the South (blue) pole or negative pole.

Fig (2), Magnetic Field Lines

2.5. PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY MAGNETS

A magnetic field is the space around a magnet in which its influence can be felt. All the
ferromagnetic will become strongly magnetised when placed in a magnetic field. Some of
them have the property of retaining much of this magnetisation when removed from the
magnetic field. Material which retains magnetisation when removed from the magnetic field
is called permanent magnet. Material which loses almost all its magnetisation when it is
removed from the magnetic field is called temporary magnet.

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 2.6. POLE STRENGTH

When a pole placed in air at a distance of 1 cm. from an identical pole, repels it with the
force of1dyne, it is said to be of unit strength. Such a pole is termed a unit pole.

2.7. LAWS OF MAGNETISM

2.7.1. THE FIRST LAW:

it states that like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract each other North-seeking poles
therefore repel each other and South-seeking poles also repel each other, while north and
south poles are mutually attracted.

2.7.2. THE SECOND LAW:

It’s known as the inverse square law. It states that the force between two poles varies
directly as the product of their pole strengths and inversely as the square of their distance.

2.8. THE MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A MAGNET

The magnetic field of a magnet has already been mentioned as being the space round a
magnet in which it’s felt. It is a common convention to show the direction of the force due
to the magnet at all parts of its field by lines of force. These lines of force are imaginary lines
used to illustrate the pattern of the magnetic field; these lines are emanating from the north
(red) pole and entering the south (blue) pole. If we suspended a magnetic needle in this
field the direction of this needle coincidence with the direction of the magnetic field lines,
As in Fig (3).

Fig (3), the effect of the magnetic field on the magnetic needle

2.9. QUALITATIVELY FLUX DENSITY AND FIELD STRENGTH

Magnetic line of force (flux) connects one pole of such a magnet with the other pole as
indicated in Fig (3).It is convenient to consider all lines of force as exerting equal force, the
strength of the magnetic field at any place could then be defined as the number of lines of

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force passing through 1 sq. cm of surface at right angle to the direction of the field at that
place. The strength of a magnetic field varies inversely as the square of the distance from
the magnet.

2.10 MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN (HARD) AND (SOFT) IRON

Not every type of iron has the same magnetic properties , for example ,iron alloyed with
about 2.5 percent silicon or aluminum is of being quite strongly magnetized by induction
but loses almost all its magnetism soon after the inducing force is removed .steel alloyed
with about 5 per cent tungsten is relatively difficult to magnetize ; When the inducing force
is removed much of the magnetism will remain and not be reduced appreciably for a long
time .the iron and silicon is said to be soft iron and the tungsten steel is hard iron. Soft iron
is iron which is easy to magnetize and quickly loses its magnetism. Hard iron is iron which is
difficult to magnetize and retains its magnetism for a long time, so that the soft iron can be
magnetized only when under the influence of a magnetic field. As soon as the inducing field
ceases to act the soft iron ceases to be magnetized. The magnetism of soft iron is
sometimes referred to as temporary or induced magnetism. In that condition, the
magnetism of hard iron is referred to as permanent magnetism.

3. THE EARTH MAGNETISM

3.1. THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH

The Earth acts like a great spherical magnet, in that it is surrounded by a magnetic field. This
magnetic field changes both with time and with location on the Earth and resembles. In
order to describe the earth’s it is convenient to imagine that the earth contains dipole at its
center. The lines of force of this imaginary dipole may be thought of surrounding the whole
earth. Line of force is spoken of as emanating from a red pole and entering a blue pole, the
blue end is in the northern hemisphere and the red end in the southern hemisphere, Freely
suspended magnetic needle under the influence of the earth’s magnetic field alone will
come to rest in the line of total force, as in fig (4). At any point and time, the Earth's
magnetic field is characterized by a direction and intensity which can be measured. Often
the parameters measured are the magnetic variation, the horizontal intensity (H), and the
vertical intensity (Z).

Fig (4), the earth magnetic field

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 3.2. MAGNETIC POLES

The accepted theory of earth magnetism considers the earth as a huge magnet surrounded
by lines of magnetic force that connect its two magnetic poles. These magnetic poles are
near, but not coincidental, with the geographic poles of the earth .Since the north-seeking
end of a compass needle is conventionally called a red (north) pole, it must therefore be
attracted to a magnetic pole of opposite polarity, or to a blue pole, south pole, or negative
pole .The magnetic pole near the north geographic pole is therefore a blue pole; and the
magnetic pole near the south geographic pole is a red pole .These may be defined as places
where the earth' total force is vertical or where the angle of dip of the lines of force is 90° as
in Fig (5).

Fig (5), Magnetic Poles

3.3. MAGNETIC EQUATOR

Is defined as a corrugated line joining the places where the dip angle is zero. The dipole we
have imagined to be inside the earth should be considered as irregular so that the magnetic
poles are not diametrically opposite and the magnetic equator is not a great circle. The
magnetic equator lies near the geographical equator. It is a sinuous curve which crosses the
geographic equator from south to north. Other lines joining places of equal dip lie roughly
parallel to the magnetic equator and are called isoclinic lines as in Fig (6).

Fig (6), Magnetic Equator

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 3.4. MAGNETIC VARIATION

Is defined as, the angle between True north and Magnetic north. Magnetic variation is
considered positive east of true north and negative when West as in fig (7) Magnetic
variation changes over time and with location. The value of the variation locates on the
chart rose.
True North Mag. North

Var.

Fig (7), Magnetic Variation

3.5. ANGLE OF DIP

At position other than on the magnetic equator, a freely suspended magnetized needle will
lie in the plane of the magnetic meridian but will be inclined at an angle to the horizontal
then the angle of dip is the angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the
horizontal level. This angle is known as the angle of dip and is said to be positive in the
Northern hemisphere where the North end of the needle is inclined downwards , and
negative in the southern hemisphere where the North end is inclined upward. This angle
equals zero at the magnetic equator, and 90° at the magnetic poles, As in Fig (8).

Fig (8), Angle of Dip

3.6. THE EARTH'S TOTAL FORCE (T)

The value of the Earth's total magnetic force is not the same all over the surface of the
earth. The intensity is, in general, least near the magnetic equator and greatest near, but
not at, the magnetic poles.

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There are two areas in the northern hemisphere and one in the southern hemisphere where
the total force has a maximum value. These are known as magnetic foci ,the approximate
positions of the magnetic foci are, Latitude 67.5° South, Longitude 140° East; Latitude 62°
North Longitude 108° East; and Latitude 59° North, Longitude 094° West. A freely
suspended magnetic needle under the influence of the earth’s magnetic field alone with
come to rest in the line of the total force, the vertical plane passing through the line of total
force at a place is the plane of the magnetic meridian at that place. The magnetic meridian
at a place is an arc of a great circle on the earth which coincides with this vertical plane.

3.7. COMPONENTS OF EARTH'S TOTAL MAGNETIC FORCE

The earth’s total magnetic force may be resolved in that plane into the horizontal force
(component) and the vertical force (component). The total force will be referred to as T,
the horizontal force as H, and the vertical force as Z. the direction of H is the direction of the
magnetic meridian as in Fig (9).

Fig (9), Components of Earth’s Total Magnetic Force

3.8. DIRECTIVE FORCE (H)

Since a compass card is constrained substantially to the horizontal, a compass needle can
respond only to the horizontal component of the Earth's total filed (H). H is always directed
towards Magnetic North and is conventionally always considered positive. Directive force
can be defined as the force which is responsible to direct a freely suspended magnetic
needle toward the magnetic north and the greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator
and reduced as long as the magnetic needle is moving away from the magnetic equator
toward any of the magnetic poles.

3.9. THE VERTICAL TOTAL FORCE COMPONENT (Z)

Total vertical force component (Z) is directed downwards in the Northern hemisphere and
then conventionally positive and directed upwards in the Southern hemisphere and then
conventionally negative.

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 3.10. VALUES OF DIRECTIVE FORCE (H) ANDVERTICAL FORCE ( Z)

The total force of the earth's magnetic field (T) can be resolved into two forces a
horizontal force (H) and vertical force (Z) as in fig (10).

Fig (10), Horizontal and Vertical Forces

From the last triangle

H = T cosine Ө Z = T sin Ө

At the Magnetic equator (Ө = zero):-

Z = T sin Zero = T * Zero = Zero (Z min. Value)

H = T cosine zero = T * 1 = T (H max. Value)

At the magnetic poles (Ө = 90°):-

Z = T sin 900 = T * 1 = T (Z max. Value)

H = T cosign 900 = T * zero = zero (H min. Value)

4. SHIP’S MAGNETISM

4.1. INTRODUCTION

A ship under construction or major repair will acquire permanent magnetism due to
hammering and jarring while sitting stationary in the earth's magnetic field. After launching,
the ship will lose some of this original magnetism as a result of vibration and pounding in
varying magnetic fields, and will the magnetism which remains is the permanent magnetism
of the ship.

The fact that a ship has permanent magnetism does not mean that it cannot also acquire
induced magnetism when placed in the earth's magnetic field. The magnetism induced in
any given piece of soft iron is a function of the field intensity, the alignment of the soft iron
in that field, and the physical properties and dimensions of the iron. This induced
magnetism may add to, or subtract from, the permanent magnetism already present in the

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ship, depending on how the ship is aligned in the magnetic field. The softer the iron, the
more readily it will be magnetized by the earth's magnetic field, and the more readily it will
give up its magnetism when removed from that field.

The magnetism in the various structures of a ship, which tends to change as a result of
cruising, vibration, or aging, but which does not alter immediately so as to be properly
termed induced magnetism, is called sub permanent magnetism. This magnetism, at any
instant, is part of the ship's permanent magnetism, and consequently must be corrected by
permanent magnet correctors. It is the principal cause of deviation changes on a magnetic
compass. Subsequent reference to permanent magnetism will refer to the apparent
permanent magnetism which includes the existing permanent and sub permanent
magnetism.

Then, a ship has a combination of permanent, sub permanent, and induced magnetism.
Therefore, the ship's apparent permanent magnetic condition is subject to change from
excessive shocks, welding, and vibration. The ship's induced magnetism will vary with the
earth's magnetic field strength and with the alignment of the ship in that field.

4.2. TYPES OF IRON AND ITS MAGNETISM

4.2.1. HARD IRON (PERMANENT MAGNETISM)

Hard iron is iron which is difficult to magnetize and retains its magnetism for a long time.
When a ship is built the hard iron component of its structure becomes permanently
magnetized by the heating, hammering and the heavy welding currents which it receives
during the building and also because of penetrates lines of force of the earth magnetic field
for long time. After launching, the ship will lose some of this original magnetism as a result
of vibration, pounding, etc.; the magnetism which remains called the permanent
magnetism of the ship.

4.2.2. SOFT IRON (INDUCED MAGNETISM)

Soft iron is the iron which is easy to magnetize and quickly loses its magnetism, so the soft
iron can be magnetised only when under the influence of the magnetic field and then only
in the direction of that field, as soon as the induction field ceases to act the soft iron ceases
to be magnetised. The magnetism of soft iron is sometimes referred to as temporary or
induced magnetism, the ship gain this magnetism during the ship changes its direction. The
soft iron of a ship’s structure is resolved into nine components (rods), as it will be explained
later.

4.2.3. INTERMEDIATE IRON (SUB PERMANENT MAGNETISM)

Material which loses almost all its magnetisation gradually on removal from the field is a
sub-permanent magnet. So it can be defined as material which is gradually magnetised
when in a magnetic field and gradually un-magnetised when removed from the field. Iron
can be produced in such a way that it loses gradually nearly all its magnetism when removed
from the magnetic field. That type of iron causes retentive error, as it will be explained later.

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Then, a ship has a combination of permanent, sub permanent and induced magnetism, since
its metal structures are of varying degrees of hardness.

This magnetism caused a force called a disturbing force which act on the magnetic compass
needle caused a deviation.

4.3. DISTURBING FORCE

The force which responsible for removing the compass needle away from the magnetic
north, caused the deviation, it is caused by the ship's magnetism (ship structure and electric
device).

4.4. DEVIATION

Another factor that influences magnetic heading measurements is the deviation. This is the
effect of local magnetic disturbances on the compass heading. Deviation depends on the
amount of (magnetized) iron in the neighborhood of the compass. The deviation is one of
the reasons why compasses are mainly built of copper or, nowadays, plastic since these
materials cannot be magnetized.

It can be defined as, the difference between magnetic north and compass north it is named
Westerly (negative) if the compass North West of magnetic North and Easterly (positive) if
the compass north East of magnetic North.

Deviation varies for every compass in the same location and depends on such factors as the
local magnetic field of the vessel. The value will also vary depending on the orientation of
the vessel. Magnets or iron masses can be used to correct for deviation so that a particular
compass will accurately give magnetic bearings. More commonly, however, a correction
card will be drawn up listing errors for the compass which can then be compensated for
arithmetically.
Mag. North Comp. North

Dev.

Fig (11), Deviation

4.5. TANGENT LAW

When a disturbing force acts at a compass in such a way that the directing field (the earth’s
horizontal field) and the disturbing field are at the right angles to one another, then the
ratio of the disturbing field to the directing field is the tangent of the angle through which
the compass needle will be deflected. In fig (12) let H represent the earth’s horizontal field
and F the disturbing field acting at a compass at C. The resultant force at the compass will be
represented by CR and the compass needle will lie in this direction, δ is the deflection, and

( ⁄ = tan δ)

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 R

δ
c
F

Fig (12),Tangent Law

4.6. MAXIMUM DEFLECTION

Disturbing force acting at a compass will cause maximum deflection when acting at right
angles to the deflected compass needle. In Fig (13) we have a triangle of forces; H
represents the earth’s horizontal field, F represents a disturbing field. CR is the resultant
field, δ is the deviation, and θ is the angle between the direction of F and the direction of
the deflected needle CR.

= Sin δ = sin θ

δ is the greatest when θ = 90º

F R
θ

Fig (13), Maximum Deflection

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 4.7. COMPONENTS OF A SHIP’S MAGNETISM

A ship has a combination of permanent, sub permanent, and induced magnetism.

Therefore, the ship's apparent permanent magnetism is subject to change from excessive
shocks, welding, and vibration. The ship's induced magnetism will vary with the earth's
magnetic field strength and with the alignment of the ship in that field.

4.7.1 EFFECT OF THE SHIP MAGNETISM

To discuss the effect of the permanent magnetism, sub permanent and induced magnetism
either the positive or negative and how the deviation caused by it and the way of correction,
we have to go throw the following steps:-

1) Determine the polarity of the ship magnetism from the building direction or the
force sign.
2) Swinging the ship throw 360°degrees.
3) Deviation’s name (semicircle, quadrant, constant).
4) Recording the deviations angle within a table (deviation table).
5) Drawing the deviations curve (deviation curve).
6) Concluding the equation which represents the relationship between changing
heading and deviation angle.

7) Find the effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle (3 equations).

8) Concluding the combined effect (heading and magnetic latitude change).

9) The Correction procedures.

4.7.2 THE CORRECTION PROCEDURES

During the correction we must do these procedures:-

1. The ship must be steady on a magnetic heading where maximum deviation occurs.
2. Correctors must be made of the same kind of iron which causes the Deviation.
3. Correctors shall be placed in the same direction of the disturbing force and their
polarities lie in the Opposite direction of the ship magnetism polarities

5. PERMANENT MAGNETISM

The permanent magnetism at any compass position is resolved into the three following
components:-

 Force P:is the fore and aft force acting at the magnetic compass(longitudinal force)
due to the permanent magnetism

 Force Q: is the athwart ships force acting at the magnetic compass (lateral force) due
to the permanent magnetism.
 Force R:a vertical force acting at the compass due to permanent magnetism i.e. act

Towards or away from the keel

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These three mentioned forces depending on the ship’s building direction and ship’s building
location. Before beginning this discussion we must recall the convention that lines of force
come out of a red pole and enter a blue pole. It follows that a blue pole will be created
where lines of force enter and red pole will be created where they come out. During this
course we will discuss force P, force Q and the combined effect of both called force O.

The compass needles would lie in the magnetic meridian if undisturbed by any of the ship
magnetism (no disturbing forces).

If the directive force (H) and any of the disturbing forces are lying in the same line (either on
the same direction or opposite to each other), then H will increase or decrease respectively.
In that case there will be no deviation.

If the directive force (H) and any disturbing force are laying at right angle in that case there
will be Max deviation in the direction of the resultant of that forces as in fig (12).

5.1 FORCE (P)

Next figure (Fig 11) illustrates the case of two ships; one is built heading north and the
second is built heading south. The lines of force will pass through the ship in the direction
shown. In accordance with the rule stated above, magnetism is induced into the ship’s hull
as shown by the colures and this becomes the ship’s permanent magnetism. P is the fore
and aft component of the force at the compass due to the ship’s permanent and sub-
permanent magnetism. It arise when the ship built heading North and South, It is named
positive P if the force is acting towards the bow and the ship being permanently magnetized
blue forward and red aft or in other word the ship’s building direction was south, and vice
versa. As in fig (14)

Fig (14), Force P

Force P acts continually at the compass. It is a constant force for a given ship and given
compass position. It does not vary with change of ship’s heading and with changes of
magnetic latitude.

The effect of force P is not constant. It changes while the ship changes the heading and with
changes of magnetic latitude.

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  EXAMPLE OF FORCE P (FORCE POSITIVE P)

To discuss the effect of the permanent magnetism force positive P we will go through
the previous nine steps:-

1) The force sign and polarities

Force positive P means that the ship being permanently magnetized blue forward and
red aft or in other word the disturbing force is acting towards the bow.

2) Swinging the ships throw 360°degrees

Second step that the ship should be swung throw 360° to conclude the disturbing force
effect on various directions as illustrated in the figure (15).

Fig (15), swinging the ships throw 360°degrees

Previous figure shows a ship swung clockwise throw 360° starting from north.
Practically the ship will not be directed only on those directions but it should be
directed on as much as practical and available on many courses. While swinging the
ship we could discover that:-

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  In the direction 1&3the disturbing force positive (P) is made to lie in the same
line with directive force (H), so it will increase or decrease it, then we have No
deviation in these directions.

 In the position 2 & 3 the disturbing forces positive (P) is made right angle with
directive force (H) so we have max. Deviation in the direction of the resultant
of the forces and the compass will lie in that direction, the resultant direction
is called compass direction.

 Conclusion :

No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading north or south, easterly
deviation while the ship is heading east & westerly deviation while the ship is
heading west.

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name in this case named semicircle as it has been changed every 180°,
as in fig (16).

Fig (16), Deviation’s name

4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

While swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table
which is called deviation table.

Compass Course 000º 090º 180º 270º 360º

No Max. No Max.
Deviation No Dev.
Dev. Easterly Dev. Westerly

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve, as in fig (17).

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 Fig (17) deviation curve

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a sin curve relation then:-

Deviation  Sin Compass Course (1)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As previously explained, that the deviation is caused by the disturbing force. Therefore,
deviation varies directly to any disturbing force increase.

On the other hand, the value of ‘H’ is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle
is moving away from the magnetic equator toward any of the magnetic poles. So deviation
due to any disturbing force will vary inversely with the directive force (H) and directly with
the disturbing force then:

Disturbing Force
Deviation 
directive force
Because of Force P (disturbing force) is a constant force for a given vessel and given
compass position, then:

Deviation  (2)

8) Combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (2) it can be concluded that:

Sin Compass Course

Deviation 
H

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 9) Correction.

 The ship must be steady on a magnetic heading( east& west).

 Correctors must be made of hard iron.
 Correctors shall be placed that their axes lie fore &aft and horizontal and their
polarities in the opposite direction of the ship magnetism polarities fig (18) .

These are usually straight magnets of circular section, They are required to be situated not
nearer than twice their own length from the needle system in order to produce an even
field at the compass and reduce induction in soft iron correctors, they shall be so placed
that their axes lie fore and aft and horizontal in the base of the binnacle.

Fig (18), Correctors position

5.2 FORCE Q

Next figure illustrates the case of two ships; one is built heading east and the second is built
heading west.

Fig (19), Force Q

Q is the athwart ships component of a ship’s permanent and sub-permanent magnetism. It

is named positive if the force is acting towards the ship’s starboard side, the ship being
permanently magnetized blue on the starboard side and red on the port side or in other
word the ship’s building direction was west and vice versa, fig (19).

Force Q acts continually at the compass. It is a constant force for a given ship and given
compass position. It does not vary with change of ship’s heading and with changes of
magnetic latitude.

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The effect of force Q is not constant. It changes while the ship changes the heading and
with changes of magnetic latitude.

 Example on force Q (force positive Q).

To discuss the effect of the permanent magnetism force positive Q and how the deviation
caused by it and the way of correction, we have to go throw the following steps:-

1) the force sign and polarities

Force positive Q means the ship being permanently magnetized blue on the
starboard side and red on the port side and the force is acting towards the ship’s
starboard side.

2) Swinging the ships throw 360°degrees

Second step that the ship should be swung throw 360° to conclude the disturbing force
effect on various directions as illustrated in the figure (20).

Fig (20), swinging the ships throw 360°degrees

Previous figure shows a ship swung clockwise throw 360° starting from north.
Practically the ship will not be directed only on those directions but it should be

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directed on as much as practical and available on many courses. While swinging the
ship we could discover that:-

 In the position 1 & 3 the disturbing force (Q) is made right angle with directive
force (H) then we have max. Deviation in the direction of the resultant of the
forces and the compass will lie in that direction, the resultant direction is
called compass direction.

 In the position 2 & 4forceQ is made to lie in the same line with directive force
(H), and then it will increase or decrease it, then we have No deviation.

Conclusion:

No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading east or west, easterly deviation
while the ship is heading north & westerly deviation while the ship is heading
south.

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name in this case named semicircle as it has been changed every180°, as
in fig (21).

Fig (21), Deviation Name

4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

During swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table which
is called deviation table.

Compass
000º 090º 180º 270º 360º
Course

Max. Max. Max.

Deviation No Dev. No Dev.
Easterly Westerly Easterly

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve, as fig (22).

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 Fig (22), Deviation Curve

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a cosine curve relation.

Deviation  cosine Compass Course (І)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As previously explained, that the deviation is caused by the disturbing force. Therefore,
deviation varies directly to any disturbing force increase.

On the other hand, the value of ‘H’ is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle
is moving away from the magnetic equator toward any of the magnetic poles. So deviation
due to any disturbing force will vary inversely as directive force (H).

Disturbing Force
Deviation α
directive force
Because of Force Q (disturbing force) is a constant force for a given vessel and given
compass position, then:

1
Deviation 
H

8) Combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change.

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (п) it can be concluded that:-

Cosine Compass Course

Deviation 
H
9) Correction

 The ship must be steady on a magnetic heading( North &south)

 Correctors must be made of hard iron.

21
  The correctors shall be placed that their axes lie horizontal and athwart ships and
their polarities in the opposite direction of the ship magnetism polarities as in fig
(23)

Fig (23), Correctors Position

The correctors are usually straight magnets of circular section. They are required to be
situated not nearer than twice their own length from the needle system, they shall be so
placed that their lie athwart ships and horizontal axes. Their usual position in the base of
the binnacle conforms to these requirements and it should be noted that they are often
placed aft of the fore and aft correctors, in which position they are farthest from any soft
iron correctors which they induce.

5.3 FORCE (O)

The force O arises in the ship when the ship was built in the direction except the cardinal
direction (N, E, and S,W), then it’s the combined effect of the force P & Q ,the direction in
which force O acts in the ship , and its value , will depend on the sign and values of P & Q .

It is a constant force for a given ship and given compass position. It does not vary with
change of ship’s heading and with changes of magnetic latitude.

The effect of force O is not constant. It changes while the ship changes the heading and with
changes of magnetic latitude.

 Example of force O, a ship was built (north – east)direction

The ship will have both permanent and horizontal magnetic force, to discuss the effect of
the permanent magnetism force O and how the deviation caused by it and the way of
correction, we have to go throw the following steps:-

1) The force sign and polarities.

In that case the starboard quarter will gain blue polarity (force –P) & (force +Q); Force O
would then act towards the starboard quarter.

2) Swinging the ships throw 360°degrees.

Second step that the ship should be swung throw 360° to conclude the disturbing force
effect on various directions as illustrated in the figure (24).

22
 Fig (24), Swinging the ships throw 360°degrees

At the Previous figure, position (1) and (3) show this ship heading as Building Direction
(B.D.) which called natural zero direction, within that direction there is no deviation as the
directive force and the disturbing force are in line.
Position (2), then shows this ship heading as B.D. plus 90° while position (4), then shows
this ship heading less than the B.D by 90° degrees.
While the ship is heading as shown in position (2), a maximum westerly deviation has been
seen and while the ship is heading as shown in position (4), a maximum easterly deviation
has been seen.

 Conclusion

 No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading (north–east) building

direction and (south – west) Building Direction plus 90°.
 The maximum deviation is caused when the disturbing force is acting 90° to the
deflected needle (ship’s course is north or east by compass).

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name named semicircle as it has been changedevery180°as in fig (25).

Fig (25), Deviation’s Name

23
 4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

During swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table which
is called deviation table.

Compass B.D. +
B.D. B.D. + 090º B.D. +180º B.D. +270º
Course 360º

Max. Max.
Deviation No Dev. No Dev. No Dev.
Westerly Easterly

Compass
000° 090º 180º 270º 360º
Course – B.D.

Max. Max. No
Deviation No Dev. No Dev.
Westerly Easterly Dev.

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve, as in fig (26).
1.2
1
0.8
E(+)
0.6
0.4
D eviation

0.2
0000 0900
0 Compass Course – B.D
1800 2700 3600
-0.2 0
-0.4
-0.6
W (-) -0.8
-1
-1.2

Fig (26), Deviation Curve

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a sine curve relation.

Deviation  sin-1 (Compass Course – B.D) (1)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As previously explained, that the deviation is caused by the disturbing force. Therefore,
deviation varies directly to any disturbing force increase.

On the other hand, the value of (H) is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle is

24
moving away from the magnetic equator toward any of the magnetic poles. So, deviation
due to any disturbing force will vary inversely as directive force (H)

Disturbing Force
Deviation α
directive force
Because of Force O (disturbing force) is a constant force for a given vessel and given
compass position, then:

1
Deviation  (2)
H

8) combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (2) it can be concluded that:

S in-1 Compass Course

Deviation α
H
9) Correction

Correctors used for force (O) are the correctors of Force (P) & force (Q).

6. INDUCED MAGNETISM

As explained that, soft iron is iron which is easily to be magnetized and quickly loses its
magnetism. So magnetizing that type of iron will depend on the ship’s heading and as well
the ship’s magnetic latitude.

For further explanation and simplicity, that type of iron can be represented by nine
imaginable rods as shown within the next table fig( and these rods as if they have length
and having no thickness, These rods are named:-

Rod a, Rod b, Rod c, Rod d, Rod e, Rod f, Rod g, Rod h & Rod k

These rods are distributed on board the ship so as the ship’s magnetic fields. Part of these
rods (Rod a, Rod b, Rod d, Rod e, Rod g and Rod h) are horizontally distributed and the
second part of these rods (Rod c, Rod f and Rod k) are vertically distributed.

25
 Table (1) Nine Rods Table

The nine soft iron rods may be either positive or negative. In order to decide the sign to be
given to a rod apply the following rule:-

 The directions forward to starboard and to the keel be positive and vice versa are
negative.

 All rods passing through the compass are negative rods and vice versa.

As long as these rods having length and do not have any considerable thickness, then H will
magnetize the horizontal rods and Z will magnetize the vertical rods.

As it will be explained later that the horizontal rods will be magnetized on certain courses
and there polarities will change on other courses and loses on certain courses. Briefly they
depend on the ship’s course and not the magnetic latitude. On the other hand the vertical
rods polarities will depend on the magnetic latitude especially if the ship is at the north
hemisphere or at the south hemisphere and have nothing to do with the ship’s course.

26
These rods have no effect on the magnetic needles system as long as they are not
magnetized.

At the same time these rods are representing either what is called well placed compass or
badly placed compass.

 Well Placed Compass (W.P.C)

Can be defined as the compass which is located on the fore and aft mid line and rods
representing it are (Rod –a / Rod –e / Rod c / Rod +k).

 Badly Placed Compass (B.P.C)

Can be defined as the compass which is not located on the fore and aft mid line and rods
representing it rods other than (Rod –a / Rod –e / Rod c / Rod +k).

6.1 ROD (C)

It’s a vertical soft iron rod located fore and aft the compass. With either it’s upper or lower
end level with the compass. For rod (positive c)is simply an abbreviation for vertical soft
iron means one of them is located in front and below the compass, with the bottom end
level of the front with the compass and vice versa the rod (negative c).

The following figure (27) shows rod (positive c) and rod (negative c) in different locations,
north and south hemisphere.

Fig (27), Rod C

As long as that rod is vertically, then it will be induced by the vertical total earth magnetic
field which is represented by (Z). Therefore it should be mentioned which hemisphere the
ship is located, either in north or south hemisphere, as the vertical earth total magnetic
field (Z) direction will depend on that, please refer to the dip angle definition.

In southern hemisphere (Z) direction will become vertically under the ship, hitting the ship’s
keel and vice versa in north hemisphere. At the magnetic equator (rod c) will never be
induced by (Z), as (Z) is equal to zero at the magnetic equator and maximum at any of the
magnetic poles.

27
  Example on rod c (a ship in north hemisphere with a negative rod c)

To discuss the effect of the induced magnetism in the rod (C) and how the deviation will be
change by changing heading ,magnetic latitude and the way of correction, we have to go
throw the following steps:-

1) The force and its polarities

As illustrates in the last figure a Force (Z) will induce the rod in a way that at the bow there
will be red polarity and at the ship’s stern will gain blue polarity. Now, negative (rod c) will
be named as force (negative CZ).

2) Swinging the ship through 360 degree

Second step that the ship should be swung throw 360° to conclude the disturbing force
effect on various directions as illustrated in the next figure.

Figure (28) shows a ship swung clockwise throw 360° starting from north. Practically
the ship will not be directed only on those directions but it should be directed on as
much as practical and available on many courses.

Fig (28), Swinging the ship through 360 degree

28
While swinging the ship we could discover that:-

 As in 1 & 3 force (negative CZ) is made to lie in the same line as H, then it will
increase or decrease the directive force at the compass. So No deviation will
be discovered.

 As in 2 & 4 forcenegative CZ is made to make a right angle with directive force

H, and then the compass will lie in the direction of the resultant of the forces.
The resultant direction is called compass direction, which mean that deviation
will be discovered either westerly or easterly deviation as shown in the figure
(28).

 Conclusion

No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading north or south and westerly
deviation while the ship is heading east & easterly deviation while the ship is heading
west.

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name in this case named semicircle as it has been changed every 180°, as
in fig (29).

Fig (29), deviation’s Name

4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

While swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table which is
called deviation table.

Compass
000º 090º 180º 270º 360º
Course

No Max. No Max. No
Deviation
Dev. Westerly Dev. Easterly Dev.

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve as in fig (30).

29
 1.2
1
0.8
E(+)
0.6
0.4
Deviation

0.2
0000 0900
0 Compass Course – B.D
1800 2700 3600
-0.2 0
-0.4
-0.6
W (-) -0.8
-1
-1.2

Fig (30), Deviation curve

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a sin curve relation.

Deviation  Sin-1 Compass Course (1)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As it was mentioned that force CZ acts continually at the compass except at the magnetic
equator as Z will be zero. It does not vary while changing ship’s heading but on the other
hand it changes while magnetic latitude changes. As previously explained, that the deviation
is caused by the disturbing force. Therefore, deviation varies directly to any disturbing force

On the other hand, the value of ‘H’ is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle
is moving away from the magnetic equator toward any of the magnetic poles. So deviation
due to any disturbing force will vary inversely as directive force (H).

Disturbing Force
Deviation α
directive force
Because the disturbing force caused by the force (Z)

Deviation α

 (2)

8) Combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (2) it can be concluded that: -

Deviation α × tan θ

9) Correction

 The ship must be steady on a magnetic heading (East & west).

 Correctors must be made of soft iron.

30
  The corrector which is going to be used in case of Rod (c) is called flinders bar. This
corrector is a vertical bar located in a non-magnetized case (brass case) located
usually on the fore side of the binnacle as in fig (31).For normal binnacles the bar is
either 24 inches in length and 3 inches in diameter or12 inches in length and 2
inches in diameter. The first one is supplied in various lengths, vis. 12, 6, 3, 1.5 and
two lengths of 0.75 inches, thus making a total of inches.

Flinders bar casing

Fig (31), the Magnetic Compass

6.2 ROD NEGATIVE (A) & ROD NEGATIVE (E)

Fig (32), Rod negative (a) & rod negative (e)

The previous figures (32) are representing both, Rods (negative a) and (negative e). The
term (- a rod) is a simple short form for continuous fore and aft, horizontal soft iron. On the

31
other hand the term (- e rod) is a simple short form for continuous, athwart ships, horizontal
soft iron.

These two imaginable rods are horizontally and have the common effect on the magnetic
compass when magnetized by “H” in a normal upright merchant vessel as if the rods are
passing through the magnetic compass.

6.2.1 ROD NEGATIVE ( a )

To discuss the effect of the induced magnetism force (– aH) and how the deviation caused
by it and the way of correction, we have to go throw the following steps:-

1) The force and its polarities

When (- a rod) is fully induced by “H” the force exerted by it at the compass is (- aH).and the
polarity will change with the ship heading.

2) Swinging the ship through 360 degree

Second step that the ship should be swung throw 360° to conclude the disturbing force
effect on various directions as illustrated in the figure (33)

Fig (33), Swinging the ship through 360 degree

32
Previous figure (33) shows a ship swung clockwise throw 360° starting from north.
Practically the ship will not be directed only on those directions but it should be
directed on as much as practical and available on many courses. While swinging the
ship we could discover that:-

 While the vessel is heading north or south (1 & 5), that rod will be fully
magnetized by H as the rod is in line with H. That is to say, the disturbing force

 exerted by it at the compass is called (force negative aH). As the disturbing

force is in line with the directive forceH, there will be no deviation.

 As explained that, soft iron will be easily magnetized and quickly loses its
magnetism. So, while the vessel is heading east or west (perpendicular to H),
the rod will lose its magnetism, then there will be no deviation. At the same
time as explained that, that rod has length and do not have any considerable
thickness, then it will not be magnetized by side. As a conclusion, no deviation
will be discovered as shown in the previous figure (3&7).

As there were no deviation while the vessel was heading north, east, south and west,
therefore we have to get the ship on the quadratic headings.

 While swinging the vessel to east the magnetic force exerted from force
(negative aH) may be resolved into two components, one of these
components will be parallel to the directive force (H) and the other
component will be parallel to the rod. The second component is the reason of
westerly deviation in our case as shown in the previous figure (2&6) and
easterly deviation as shown in the previous figure (4&8).

Conclusion

 No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading north, east, south and
west, westerly deviation while the ship has been swung north to east and
from south to west and easterly while it has been swung from east to south
and from west to north.

 The maximum deviation is caused when the ship’s course is (N.E, S.E, S.W and
N.W).

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name in this case named quadrant as it has been changed every 90°, as in
fig (34).

Fig (34), Deviation’s name

33
 4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

While swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table which is
called deviation table.

Compass Co. 000º 045º 090º 135º 180º 225º 270º 315º 360º

No Max. No Max. No Max. No Max. No

Dev.
Dev. W’ly. Dev. E’ly. Dev. W’ly. Dev. E’ly. Dev.

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve.

Fig (35), Deviation Curve of force (– aH)

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a sin curve relation.

Deviation  Sin-1 (2 x Compass Course) (1)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As it was mentioned that force (negative aH) acts continually at the compass except at the
magnetic poles as H will be zero. It does not change while changing magnetic latitude but on
the other hand it changes with ship’s heading. As previously explained, that the deviation is
caused by the disturbing force. Therefore, deviation varies directly to any disturbing force
increase.

34
On the other hand, the value of (H) is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle
is moving toward the magnetic poles, so deviation due to any disturbing force will vary
inversely as directive force (H).

Disturbing Force
Deviation 
directive force

Since, the disturbing force is basically caused by H. Therefore, the equation can be written
as:-

H
Deviation α α1
H
8) Combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change.

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (п) it can be concluded that:

Deviation  Sin-1 (2 Compass Course) x 1

9) Correction.

We correct the effect of the rods (a, e, b and d) by soft iron spheres, the spheres shall
be secured equidistant on the either side of the compass, as in fig (45).

These are of various sizes, ranging from 2 to 10 inches in diameter; those under 6
inches diameter are solid and over 6inches hollow in order to reduce weight.

The spheres are to be situated so that their centers lie in the same horizontal plane as
that which passes through the needle system .the bracket which support the spheres
are so placed as to conform with this requirement .

On some binnacles a graduated brass strip is attached to the bracket to indicate the
distance from the center of the compass.

35
 Magnetic compass card
Soft iron spheres

binnacle

Hood Fig (36), Soft iron spheres position

6.2.3 ROD NEGATIVE (e)

To discuss the effect of the induced magnetism force (– e H) and how the deviation caused
by it and the way of correction, we have to go through the following steps:-

1) The force and its polarities

When (- e rod) is fully induced by “H” the force exerted by it at the compass is (- e H).

2) swinging the ship through 360 degree

the next figure (35) shows a ship swung clockwise throw 360° starting from north.
Practically the ship will not be directed only on those directions but it should be
directed on as much as practical and available on many courses. While swinging the
ship we could discover that:

36
 Fig (37), Swinging the ship through 360 degree

As explained that, soft iron is iron which is easily to be magnetized and quickly loses its
magnetism. So, while the vessel is heading north or south (perpendicular to H), there will
not be any deviation. At the same time as explained that, that rod has length and do not
have any considerable thickness, then it will not be magnetized by side. As a conclusion, no
deviation will be discovered as shown in the previous figure (1&5).

 While the vessel is heading east or west, that rod will be fully magnetized by
H. That is to say, the disturbing force exerted by it at the compass is called
(force negative eH). As the disturbing force is in line with the directive force,
there will be no deviation. As a conclusion, no deviation will be discovered as
shown in the previous figure (3&7).

 As there were no deviation while the vessel was heading north, east, south
and west, therefore we have to get the ship on the quadratic headings.

 While swinging the vessel to east the magnetic force exerted from force
(negative eH) may be resolved into two components, one of these

37
 components will be parallel to the directive force (H) and the other
component will be parallel to the rod. The second component is the reason of
easterly deviation in our case as shown in the previous figure (2&6) and
westerly deviation as shown in the previous figure (4&8).

Conclusion

 No deviation can be seen while the ship is heading north, east, south and
west, easterly deviation while the ship has been swung from north to east and
from east to south and vice versa while it has been swung from south to west
and from west to north.

 The maximum deviation is caused when the disturbing force is acting 045° to
the deflected needle (ship’s course is N.E, S.E, S.W and N.W by compass).

3) Deviation’s name

Deviation’s name in this case named quadrant as it has been changed every 90°, as in
fig (36).

Fig (38), Deviation name

4) Recording the deviations angle within a table

While swinging the ship, all observed deviation angles should be recorded in a table

Compass Co. 000º 045º 090º 135º 180º 225º 270º 315º 360º

No Max. No Max. No Max. No Max. No

Dev.
Dev. E’ly Dev. W’ly Dev. E’ly Dev. W’ly Dev.

5) Deviation curve

After recording observed deviation angles within the deviation table, it is necessary to plot
all these angles to get a curve called deviation curve, as in fig (37).

38
 Fig (39), Deviation Curve of force (- eH)

6) Relationship between changing heading and deviation angle

From the previous curve, it is clearly shown that the relationship between heading by
compass and deviation has a sin curve relation.

Deviation  Sin (2 x Compass Course) (1)

7) Effect of changing magnetic latitude on the deviation’s angle

As it was mentioned that force (negative eH) acts continually at the compass except at the
magnetic poles as H will be zero. It does not change while changing magnetic latitude but on
the other hand it changes with ship’s heading. As previously explained, that the deviation is
caused by the disturbing force. Therefore, deviation varies directly to any disturbing force
increase.

On the other hand, the value of (H) is variable and depends on the magnetic latitude as the
greatest value of H is at the magnetic equator and reduced as long as the magnetic needle
is moving toward the magnetic poles. So deviation due to any disturbing force will vary
inversely as directive force (H).

Disturbing Force
Deviation α
directive force
Since, the disturbing force is basically caused by H. Therefore, equation can be written as:

H
Deviation α α1 (2)
H
8) Combined effect while changing both heading and magnetic latitude change

As the ship will sail from place to place, then the ship’s headings and magnetic latitudes are
going to be changed during the voyage. From equation (І) & (2) it can be concluded that:-

Deviation  Sin (2 Compass Course) x 1

39
 9) Correction.

The rod negative (a), negative (e), positive (b) and positive (d) will be corrected together as
described before.

6.2.4 THE COMBINED EFFECT OF BOTH FORCES (- aH) & (- eH)

Fig (40), Combined effect of rods (–a & -e)

The combined effect of both forces (-aH) & (-eH) called coefficient +D, as in fig (38).

The deviation of the coefficient +D is:-

Deviation  Sin (2 Compass Course)

7 - THE APPROXIMATE COEFFICIENTS

Is the combined effect which is produced from effect of more than one disturbing force on
the magnetic compass needle (these forces has the same effect in case of changing the
compass courses), similar curves.

The deviations curve of (force P) is similar to the deviations curve of (force CZ).

The deviations curve of (force Q) is similar to the deviations curve of (force FZ).

The deviations curve of (force –a H) is similar to the deviations curve of (force – e H).

The deviations curve of (force + b H) is similar to the deviations curve of (force+ dH).

These forces are divided into five coefficients (A, B, C, D, and E).

40
 7.1 CALCULATE THE COEFFICIENTS

Coefficient (A)

Coefficient A is caused by (b & d ) rods of equal value and opposite sign and also due to
factors other than the magnetic effects of a ship’s structure (humane error) like:-

 The N-S graduations on a compass card are not in line with the axes of the needle
system.
 The lubber’s line of the compass is not parallel to the fore and aft axis of the ship.
 The wrong value of variation is used for calculating of variation.

A is the coefficient of constant deviation; its approximate value is obtained by estimating

the mean of the algebraic sum of all the deviation. Throughout these computations the sign
of east deviation is considered plus and west deviation is considered minus.

Coefficient (A) =

Coefficient (A) =

Coefficient (B)

Is the coefficient of the maximum semicircular sine deviation, due to force (p) and (CZ), its
value is maximum, but of opposite polarity on east and west heading. The approximate
value of B coefficient is estimated by taking the mean of deviations at east and west with
sign at west reversed.

Coefficient (B) =

Coefficient (C)

Is the coefficient of semicircular cosine deviation ,due to force (Q) and force (FZ) , Its value is
maximum, but of opposite polarity on north and south headings, and the approximate value
of (C) coefficient is estimated by taking the mean of the deviation at north and south, with
the sign at south reverse

Coefficient (C) =

Coefficient (D)

Is the coefficient of quadrant sin deviation due to (a & e) rods having maximum, but
alternately opposite on the inter cardinal headings (quadratic headings). Hence the
approximate value of (D) coefficient is estimated by taking the mean of the four inter
cardinal deviation with the signs at S.E (1350) and sin (315) reversed.

Coefficient (D) =

41
 Coefficient (E)

Is the coefficient of quadrant cosine deviation and due to (d & b) rods, having maximum, but
alternately opposite polarity in the cardinal heading (N¸E,S,W) Therefore the approximate
value of (E) coefficient deviations with the signs at East (0900 ) and west (2700 ) reversed.

Coefficient (E) =

7.2 THE MATHEMATICAL FORMULA TO CALCULATE THE DEVIATION ON ANY COMPASS

COURSE:-

Deviation (at any comp. Co.) = A + (B sin comp. Co.) + (C cosine comp. Co.)

+ (D sin 2 comp. Co.) + (E cosine 2 comp. Co.)

(Where A, B, C, D, E are the five coefficients.)

 Coefficients A : constant on all courses.

 Coefficients B : α sin (comp. Co.).
 Coefficients C : α cosine (comp. Co.).
 Coefficients D : α sin 2 (comp. Co.).
 Coeficientes E : α cosine 2 (Comp. Co.

42
 Approximate Coefficient Table

Coefi Cause Type of Deviation Effect of The value of Effect of change Corrected
change of coefficient 0f latitude
cients By
course

 Human error. Constant Sum of deviation  Check calculation.

 Compass, Gyro  Adjust alignment
A On all None 8 None
alignment of compass and
error. Gyro.
 b and d rods.
 Fore and aft
 Force P. Semicircular Max. in α sin δE - δW  α magnets.
 Vertical Rod C E. and W. compass
 Flinders bar.
B course 2
(Force CZ).  α α (Tan ө)

 Athwart ship
 Force Q. Semicircular Max. in α cosine δN - δS  α magnets.
 Vertical Rod F N. and S. compass
 Flinders bar.
C course 2
(Force FZ).  α α(Tan ө)

Horizontal Rods Quadrant max. In α Sine twice δ NE - δ SE +δ SW - δ Two soft iron

N.E, S.E, S.W & compass NW Spheres placed on
D a&e N.W. course None
the other sides of
4
(force aH & eH ) the compass.

Horizontal Rods Quadrant max. in α cosine δ N – δ E+ δ S- δ W Two soft iron

N.,E.,S. & W. twice Spheres placed on
E b&d compass 4 None the other sides of
course the compass.
43
8. EXAMPLE (0N THE COEFFICIENTS)

The following deviations were observed on a un compensated compass.

Compass N NE E S.E S S.W W N.W

courses

Deviation 60 W 19.50 E 150 E 1.50 W 40 E 12.50 E 50 W 22.50 W

Calculate the coefficients and calculate the deviation at course (s30 E)?

The solution

Coefficient A=

= = = + 20

Coefficient B = = = = = +100
–
Coefficient C = = = = = - 50

Coefficient D =

Coefficient D =

= = = + 140

Coefficient E =

= = = = = - 30

Deviation at course (s30E)

Deviation (at any comp. Co.) = A+ (B ×sin comp. co.) + (C× cosine comp. Co.) + (D× sin 2
comp. Co.) + (E× cosine 2 comp. Co.)

Deviation at comp. co. s30E (150°) =

= 20 + (100) × sin (1500)) + (-50) × cosine (1500) + (140) × sin (3000) + (-30) × cosine (3000).

= 20 + (100 × 0.5) + (-50) × (-0.87) + (140) × (-0.87) + (-30) × (0.5) = 20 + 50 + 4.350 -

12.180 - 1.50 = -2.330

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 9. CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

9.1 THE COMPONENTS OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

The magnetic compass as in fig (46) consists of:-

Fig (50), Magnetic compass components

45
Card: is an aluminum disk graduated in degrees from 0 to 359 It has a jeweled

Bearing that rides on a hard, sharp pivot point.

Bowl: The card is supported by the bowl; a lubber's line is marked on the bowl and is used
as visible index. The bowl is filled with liquid to dampen over swings by the card;
an expansion bellows in the lower bowl serves to allow expansion of the liquid with
temperature changes.

Magnets: Several bar magnets are used to correct and align the compass.

Gimbals : The bowl has two pivots that rest in a metal ring, which also has two
pivots which also has two pivots resting in the binnacle. This arrangement
(gimbals) permits

Binnacle: The binnacle serves as housing for the compass. It is made of a non-magnetic
material .It also serves as housing for the compasses correctors: magnets,
flinders' bar, and quadrant spheres. A lighting system is normally installed.

9. 2 COMPOSITION OF THE LIQUID

The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol with a ratio off
three to one respectively. The main purpose of using and mixing the distilled water and pure
ethyl alcohol is to have the following properties:-
 Low freezing point about -30°C, as the freezing temperature of water alone is - 4º C.
 Small coefficient of expansion in case of increasing air temperature.
 Does not discolor the card.
 Low relative density is need
 Keep the magnetic compass card free to turn.
The top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is of frosted glass to diffuse the light
coming from an electric bulb below. This liquid has a small coefficient of expansion, but
since its volume changes slightly with change of temperature, a flexible corrugated plate or
expansion chamber is fitted to the bottom of the compass.

9.3 REMOVING AIR BUBBLES

Air bubbles often appear in a compass bowl. If the air bubble appears then the frictionless
movement of the card would be affected.
To remove the air bubble, the bowl has to be tilted in the inverted condition such that the
highest point is the filling hole, this would drive the air space bubble to the filling hole. Then
use a swivel plate to unscrew the filling hole. A syringe is filled with the mixture of distilled
water and pure ethyl alcohol (2:1) and bit by bit mixture is injected into the bowl. Once the
mixture is injected to satisfaction the filling hole is screwed back, and the bowl returned to
normal position.

46
 9.4 CHECKING THAT THE CARD IS TURNING FREELY ON ITS PIVOT

The compass card may be tested for pivot friction by deflecting the compass cards a few
degrees by using any spare magnet. If the pivot is in good condition the card should return
to and settle in its original position with no sign of sticking or jerkiness.

9.5 MARKING OF THE LUBBER’S LINE AND ITS PURPOSE

Lubber’s line is the mark on the binnacle, which is brought to meet the desired point on the
compass card and as well marks the direction of the fore and aft line of the ship.
10. Binnacle and the arrangement of correcting devices provided

The binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teakwood. No magnetic material is used in the
construction. The compass bowl is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle
portion is accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. Light from this bulb passes
upwards through a small slot at the bottom of the compass bowl to illuminate the compass
card from below.

A mechanical shutter can control the intensity of the light. The number of magnets in the
bucket, the bucket’s position with reference to the compass card and the number of hard iron
magnets depend on the disturbing forces. A qualified “compass adjuster” can calculate this
force after conducting certain tests.

Once the compass has been adjusted, the magnets should not be disturbed and the doors
giving access to tile corrector magnets should be kept locked.

11. Methods of obtaining the deviation

11.1 By transit bearings
(1) Locate two transit objects (objects in line) and determine their true bearing on the chart.
(2) secure the ship at anchor so that these transits are exactly aligned. Swing the ship's head
until it is pointing due north.
(3) Read off the transit bearing on the compass and apply the variation.

(4) The difference between this result and the true transit bearing is the deviation on this
heading. If the true bearing is greater, the deviation is named east; if it is the lesser, the
deviation is named west.

(5) Repeat the procedure taking transit bearings on each of the cardinal points.

(6) From the results, make up a deviation card.

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11.2 By reciprocal bearings comparison

Deviations on compass courses may be obtained by the use of reciprocal bearings. Simply
use either a gearless non-magnetic boat fitted with a magnetic compass or setting a
magnetic compass ashore away from any disturbing forces. As the ship is steadied on
each heading reciprocal bearings are taken simultaneously from the ship and the boat or
from shore. The ship can then sight the pylorus on shore or on the boat by using an
azimuth circle or pylorus; at the same instant the observer on shore sights the ship. The
bearings from the ship is representing the compass bearings and the shore or boat
reciprocal bearings are representing magnetic bearings as no disturbing forces are boat or
shore compasses. Comparison between these two bearings gives the deviation naturally
after adding 180º to the bearings taken from the boat or from the shore.

Communication between ship and shore or the boat is necessary and must be so arranged
as to provide simultaneous observations. Two methods of such communication are by
flashing lights or using flags.

11.3 By gyroscopic compass

Provided that the error on the gyroscopic compass is known, then the magnetic bearing of
a distance object is also known, after the variation has been applied. The deviation is thus
readily obtained by comparison.

Comparisons between magnetic compass and gyrocompass should be made once a watch
and after every alteration of course.

All the repeaters should be compared with the Master gyrocompass and the Magnetic
compass should be compared with the Master Gyrocompass.

11.4 Astronomical azimuth

The magnetic bearing of a heavenly body may be readily found by applying the known
variation to the calculated true azimuth for the time of observation. These azimuths are
found by the normal navigational methods.

10. WHEN THE MAGNETIC COMPASSES SHOULD BE ADJUSTED:-

1-When they are first installed or after repairs to the compass or binnacle.

2- If the compass becomes unreliable.

48
3- Major dry-docks when the vessel undergoes structural repairs or alterations which affect its
permanent and induced magnetism.

4- When electrical or magnetic equipment close to the compass is added to, removed or altered.

5-When a period of two years has elapsed since the last adjustment and a record of compass
deviation has not been maintained, or the recorded deviations are excessive or when the
compass shows physical defects.

11. Advantage of magnetic compass:-

1- Little maintenance required.

2- No power source required.
3- Durability.

12. Disadvantage of magnetic compass:-

1- Does not seek True North.

2- Affected by surrounding materials.
3- Cannot be used near the poles.

49
complete marine magnetic compass
Fig (51) complete marine magnetic
compass with reflector

50