Soil Classification

Soil Classification- Purpose

Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms
of simple indices, that can provide geotechnical engineers
with a general guidance about engineering properties of the
soils through the accumulated experience.

Communicate
between
engineers

Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

system Engineering Engineering
GSD, LL, PI (Language) Properties Purposes
Use the
accumulated
experience
 Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
Origin of USCS:
 This system was first developed by Professor Casagrande
(1944) for the purpose of airfield construction during World
War II. Afterwards, it was modified by him, for the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers in 1948 to enable the system to be applicable to
dams, foundations, and other structures.
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat
 Organic Soils
 Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol Pt )
 A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of
decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black
color, and an organic odor should be designated as a highly organic soil and
shall be classified as peat, Pt.

 Organic clay or silt ( group symbol OL or OH)

 “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 %
of its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is
true, then the first symbol is O.
 The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI
and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
 Classification of Soils
Important distinction between soil particles
based on particle size:

COARSE-GRAINED (COHESIONLESS)
Aggregate inter-lock (stone-to-stone contact)

FINE-GRAINED (COHESIVE)
Cohesive Bond between fine particles
Grain Size (USCS)

Coarse-Grained Fine-Grained

4.75 mm 0.075 mm
No. 4 Sieve No. 200 Sieve
Comparison of the Ranges of Particle Sizes
 Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
 Information required for soil classification according to USCS:

1) Particle Size
– Gravel (G), Sand (S), silt (M), and Clay (C)

2) Particle Size Distribution

– Gradation parameters (Cc and Cu)

3) “Atterberg Limits” of the Fine Portion of the Mix

– Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic Limit (PL) and Plasticity Index (PI)
 Definition of Grain Size (USCS)

Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand Silt and Clay

Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075 mm
19 mm No.10 No.40
2.0 mm 0.425 mm
 General Guidance
50% 50%
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
NO. 4 NO.200
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

Grain size distribution Atterburg Limits (PL, LL)

 Cu  Plasticity chart
 Cc
Required tests: Sieve Analysis

Atterberg Limit
 Symbols
Soil Symbols: Plasticity Symbols:
 G: Gravel  H: High LL (LL>50)
 S: Sand  L: Low LL (LL<50)
 M: Silt Gradation Symbols:
 C: Clay  W: Well-Graded
 O: Organic  P: Poorly-Graded
 Pt: Peat Well  graded soil
Example: SW, Well-Graded Sand
1  Cc  3 and Cu  4
SC, Clayey Sand
( for gravels)
SM, Silty Sand, 1  Cc  3 and Cu  6
MH, Highly Plastic Silt ( for sands )
Particle Size Distribution Terms
P - Poorly graded
(uniform sizes)

W - Well graded
Good mix of sizes

P - Poorly graded
Missing range of sizes
Gradation Parameters

Effective size D10: 0.02 mm

D30: 0.6 mm
D60: 9 mm
 Gradation Parameters
D10  0.02 mm (effective size)
Criteria
D30  0.6 mm
D 60  9 mm Well  graded soil
Coefficien t of uniformity 1  Cc  3 and Cu  4
D 60 9 ( for gravels )
Cu    450
D10 0.02 1  Cc  3 and Cu  6
Coefficien t of curvature ( for sands )

(D30 ) 2 (0.6) 2
Cc   2
(D10 )(D 60 ) (0.02)(9)
 Atterburg Indices
Plasticity Index PI Liquidity Index LI
For describing the range of For scaling the natural
water content over which a water content of a soil
soil acts plastically. sample to the Limits.
PI = LL – PL w  PL w  PL
LI  
Liquid State C
PI LL  PL
Liquid Limit, w is the water content
Plastic LL
PI B
State
Plastic Limit, LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if sheared
Semisolid State PL 0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if sheared
Shrinkage Limit, LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if sheared
Solid State A SL
 Atterberg Limits and Volume Change

Volume Change
(Dv)

Shrinkage
limit Soil
drying

PL LL
Moisture content (%)
 Plasticity Chart
L H
• The A-line generally
separates the more
clay-like materials
from silty materials,
PI and the organics from
the inorganics.
• The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.

Note: If the measured

limits of soils are
above the U-line, they
should be rechecked.
Symbols of USCS – Coarse Grained Soils

Class Passing No. 200 Description Secondary symbol

Less than 5% Well-graded W

Gravel “Clean” Poorly-graded P

(G)
More than 12%
Excess of fines C or M
“Dirty”

Well-graded W
Less than 5%
Sand
Poorly-graded P
(S)
More than 12% Excess of fines C or M
Symbols of USCS – Fine Grained Soils
Size Surface
Primary Indication Activity Secondary
Class
symbol [A-Line [B-Line symbol
Position] Position]

Low Plasticity L
LL < 50% “Lean”
CLAY C Above
High Plasticity H
LL > 50% “Fat”

Low Plasticity L
LL < 50% “Lean”
SILT M Below
High Plasticity H
LL > 50% “Fat”
Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used:
1) Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines:
 About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the coarse-grained
soils by orders of magnitude.
 The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or poorly graded. The
second symbol describes the fine content. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand
with silt.

2) Fine-grained soils with PI between 4 and 7 and LL between

about 12 and 28:
 It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more clay-like materials.
 CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clay sand.

3) Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.

 possible dual symbols GM-ML
 Plasticity Chart
L H

PI

LL
 Procedures for Classification
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

( From Santamarina et al., 2001, Similar to Table 2.7 of your text book)
 Example #1
Passing No.200 sieve = 30%

Passing No.4 sieve = 70%

LL= 33
PL= 13
PI=LL-PL=33-13=20
Above A-Line
SC
Borderline Cases (Summary)

(From old version of the text book, Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
Flow chart for classification of coarse-grained soils (<50% passing #200
sieve). (Adapted from ASTM D2487.)
Flow chart for classification of inorganic fine-grained soils (≥50% passing #200 sieve).
(Adapted from ASTM D2487.)
Flow chart for classification of organic fine-grained soils (≥50% passing #200 sieve).
(Adapted from ASTM D2487.)
Assessment of Soil Properties Based on
Group Symbol
Assessment of Soil Properties Based on
Group Symbol (Cont.)
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials System (AASHTO)
Origin of AASHTO: (for road construction)

 The AASHTO methodology to classify soils was originally

developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929 as the
Bureau of Public Roads Classification System.
 The original system was based on the stability
characteristics of soils when used as a road surface or
with a thin asphalt pavement.
 There are several revisions since 1929, and the latest
version published in 1945 is essentially the present
AASHTO system.
 Definition of Grain Size (AASHTO)

Boulders Cobbles Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Coarse Fine

305 mm 75 mm 2 mm 0.075 mm

0.001 mm
0.002 mm
Sieve #10 0.425 mm Sieve #200
Sieve #40
 General Guideline
– 8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and organic soils A8
– The required tests are sieve analysis and Atterberg limits.
– The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further evaluate soils
within a group (subgroups).

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7
Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials
 35% pass #200 sieve  36% pass #200 sieve

Using LL and PI separates silty materials Using LL and PI separates silty materials
from clayey materials (only for A2 group) from clayey materials

The original purpose of developing the AASHTO classification system was to

provide a systematic method to classify soils for use in highway construction.
 Group Index (GI)
General Equation:

GI  ( F200  35)0.2  0.005( LL  40)  0.01( F200  15)( PI  10)

F200: percentage passing through the No.200 sieve

For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI  0.01(F200  15)(PI  10)
use the second term only

In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is

inversely proportional to the group index, GI.
Flow chart for AASHTO Soil Classification
 Example #2
Passing No.200 = 86% GI  (F200  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)
LL=70, PI=32  0.01(F200  15)(PI  10)
Check: LL-30=40 > PI=32  33.47  33 Round off A-7-5(33)

38
 USDA Soil Classification
 The US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) soil classification method is
typically made based on the relative
proportions of silt, sand and clay
contents of the soil.

 Follow any two component

percentages and move along the
predefined lines to find the nominal
name for the soil type.

 This classification method is rarely

used by geotechnical engineers.
 USDA Soil Classification
Example
Based on the sieve analysis of a granular
backfill soil, the following percentages of
aggregate sizes were identified from the
gradation chart. Classify this soil according
to the USDA method.

Sand: 40%
Silt: 40%
Clay: 20%

Solution:
Based on the USDA triangle, the soil is
Loam.
 County Soil Survey
websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov
El Paso, County