OFM - 01 - Orbit Geometry - EN

Orbit and Flight Mechanics
Orbit Geometry
Reference Frames
Ground Tracks
Earth Coverage
Orbit Determination
Astronautics, 2nd + 3rd ed.,

Chapter 13 +14
1.1
Institute of Astronautics Prof. U. Walter
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture © 2022, LRT
Literature
Orbit Geometry
 Chobotov, Orbital Mechanics, p. 241ff & p. 411ff
 Peter Fortescue, Spacecraft Systems Engineering, p.116ff
Ground Tracks
Vallado, Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications, p. 126ff
Constellations
 Spaceflight Dynamics – Part II: A. Lamy, Satellite Constellations, p. 1927ff
 Chobotov, Orbital Mechanics, p. 435ff
 Peter Fortescue, Spacecraft Systems Engineering, p.127ff
1.2
Reference Frames
Astronautics, 2nd ed., Chapter 13
1.3
Reference Frames Basics – First Point of Aries
a.k.a. vernal point
First Point of Aries  is the point on the celestial sphere as seen from the Sun to
the ascending node of the intersection between the terrestrial equatorial plane and
the ecliptic, which equals the direction in which the Sun is seen from Earth at vernal
equinox.
First Point of Aries  is shared by the equatorial and ecliptical coordinate system
and is used in both to specify the direction of the x-axis.
1.4
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 2nd ed., S. 491
© 2022, LRT
First Point of Aries = Vernal Point
First
Point of
Aries Equatorial circle
Signs of Zodiac
Sun
Vernal
Equinox Earth
(March 21th)
Ecliptic circle
= Zodiac
1.5
First Point of Aries 150 BC and today
today
150 BC 30°
December 22nd June 21st
Migration of the celestial sphere

owing to the precession of Earth‘s axis
1.6 March 21th
Institute of Astronautics Vernal Equinox Prof. U. Walter
Reference Frames – Classification
1. Depending on the type of coordinate system

a) Rectangular Coordinates
b) Polar Coordinates
c) Cylinder Coordinates
2. Depending on the origin point of the coordinate system

a) Heliocentric (Origin in the center of Sun)
b) Geocentric (Origin in the center of Earth)
c) Barycentric (Origin the center of gravity Planet-Sun or Planet-Moon)
d) Topocentric (Origin in the observation point)
3. Depending on the position of the x-y- plane

a) Ecliptical (x-y- Plane parallel to the ecliptic)
b) Equatorial (x-y-Plane parallel to the Earth equatorial plane)
1.8
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 2nd ed., p. 492
© 2022, LRT
Standard Reference Frames –
Heliocentric-ecliptic coordinate system XYZ
Remark: This and all following standard reference frames are historically and still commonly termed „coordinate system“.
They rightly should be named „reference system“.
1.9
Geocentric Equatorial Coordinate System IJK
The inertial geocentric-equatorial

coordinate system IJK
Right ascension 
Declination 
1.10
Institute of Astronautics Astronautics, 2nd ed., p. 493 Prof. U. Walter
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 666 © 2022, LRT
Perifocal-Geocentric Coordinate System PQW
The Earth is in the perifocus of

the orbit Often used for orbit analysis
P-Q Plane
= Orbit plane
P = Vector in direction
of periapsis
Periapsis
1.11
Topocentric Coordinate Systems RSW and NTW
Often used for orbit analysis.
R-S Plane
N-T Plane = Orbit plane
= Orbit plane
R = Radius vector to
T = Vector in satellite
flight direction
1.12
Space Station
Analysis
LVLH System
Astronautics, 3rd ed., p.362

Reference Frames – LVLH & XPOP
LVLH XPOP
ISS z-axis always pointing to nadir ISS x-axis always parallel to h = XPOP
LH = Local Horizontal
LV = Local Vertical
The LVLH system (Local Vertical Local Horizontal) POP = Perpendicular to Orbit Plane
follows from the RSW-system by rotation around the
S-axis by 180°, in other words R,S,W  Z,X,Y
1.14
Measuring Time
A coordinate system of time (Calendar system) requires an accurate:

 Measure of time and
 Zero Point in time
The original measure for time is the mean

solar time (mean solar day = 24h). From it
is derived the basic unit second 86400 s
= 1 mean solar day. It is to be
distinguished between a solar day and a +1°
sidereal day (see fig.).
It is valid that: 1 sidereal day = 23 h 56 min Within 24h the Earth
4.090524 s must rotate 361°
 360° in 23h 56min
Today‘s Measure: UTC (Universal time coordinated). Absolute time standard based on atomic clocks.
Julian Date (JD) is the astronomical standard calendar, where a date is counted continuously in solar
days, starting with January 1, 4713 BC, 12.00h (= Zero Point = Epoch).
One refers an astronomical date today mostly to the zero point (epoch) J2000:
J2000 = January 1st, 2000 n.Chr., 12.00h = JD - 2 451 545.0
Example: January 1st, 2013, 00:30:00.0 UTC = 2 456 293.520 833 JD = 4 748.520 833 J2000
1.18
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 2nd + 3rd ed., Abschnitt 13.2 © 2022, LRT
Ground Tracks
1.19
Ground Tracks
Nadir point
Ground tracks drift westward

as the Earth rotates below an orbit.
1.20
Ground Tracks – LEO
LEO := Satellite orbits h = 200 - 1000 km (Area of the "perceptible" atmosphere of Earth)
Low Earth orbit for space stations, surveillance and research satellites.
T = 90 min for h = 260 km, T = 105 min for h = 1000 km
1.21
LEO Ground Tracks – Projections
Circular Orbit, i = 65°
1.22
Inclination Dependent Projections
Orbits at this orbital

altitude already for i
> 70° are apparently
retrograde, because
the Earth rotates in
a west-east
direction. For other
orbital altitudes,
other limiting
inclinations result
instead of 70°.
1.24
Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO)
Molniya Orbit (Tundra Orbit)

Mostly Russian communication satellites and
US or Russian early warning or spy satellites, such as US
SBIRS-HEO satellites.
T = 12 h (24h for Tundra Orbits)

e = 0.722 (0.24 - 0.4)
i = 63.4° (63.4°) [Progression of line of apsides = 0!] hapo
a = 26 560 km (42 240 km)
hapo = 39 358 km (66 400 km) altitude
hperi = 1000 km (5370 km)
The satellite "pauses" in the first orbit of the day approx.

63.4°
8 hours at apogee over Siberia; crosses perigee over South
Pacific in 4 hours to reach apogee of the second orbit of the
day over Canada. Then perigee over South Africa, continuing
over Siberia, and so forth.
Advantages: Stays a long time over the northern

hemisphere
No shadow in apogee
Disadvantages: Crosses the Van Allen Belts
3 satellites required for coverage
(2 satellites for Tundra orbits)
1.25
Molniya & Tundra Ground Tracks
Apogee 1 Apogee 2
Apogee
Meridian 7
Militärischer
Military Russian
russischer
Molniya Satellite
Molniya Satellit
Sirius FM3
Perigee 1 Perig
Perigee
1.26
GEO Satellite Population (2005)

a3  42164 km
2
h  35 786 km
a  42 164 km
i  0 1 orbital period per siderial day

e0 = 23h 56min 4.099s
1.29
Geostationary Satellites over Arizona
1.31
Typical GSO Ground Tracks
T = 23h 56min 4s  geosynchronous orbit (GSO)
Special case: e = i = 0  geostationary orbit (GEO)
one point every

30 minutes
These two elements determine the

phase between vertical and horizontal
motion  shape of groundtrack
 e = 0.2, i = 20°,  = 30°,  = 0°

 e = 0.2, i = 30°,  = 35°,  = 35°
 e = 0.2, i = 45°,  = 100°,  = 35°
1.32
Earth Coverage
1.33
Earth Coverage
Circular orbit 200 km, i=23,5°, one point per

minute
The total coverage is limited in LEO by inclination:

Reachable latitude  i
1.34
Definition of Geometric Sizes
True outer horizon
R b0 d0
0 e
d
 b r r0
Satellite
h
Subsatellite point
R
cos 0 
Rh
Let b0 be the horizontal length on the planet surface
R  5 h
b0  0 R  R  arccos  2hR 1    2hR
Rh  12 R 
h R
Visibilities for h [m] 1,7 10 100 3000 400 km

Earth b0 [km] 4,6 11,3 36 195 2200
1.35
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 680f © 2022, LRT
Orbital Sizes
Groundtrack
Sw  2b  2 2hR Horizon
b
Nadir
Swath width
Sw
1.36
Footprint & Access Area
Instantaneous Access Area

(Total Area in View) Footprint Area (Field of View = FOV)
Total area that a given instrument could Area that the instrument sees at a
potentially see at a given moment. given moment.
Access Area = b  2hR

2
1.37
Constellations
what is the purpose of

Walker (Delta Pattern) Constellation Walker constellations?
It is a constellation with t satellites

flying on p different orbits uniformly
distributed with uniform
inclination i and a relative spacing
between satellites in neighboring
orbits; it is classified as
separation angle
i :t / p/ f = 360/t
f – Phase (True Anomaly) between two

nearest satellites on two adjacent
orbits. I.e. if a satellite in the nth
orbit is just at the ascending node
(n = 0), then in the neighboring
orbit n+1 a satellite has the True
Anomaly of
 n   n  f  360  t
1.39
Galileo Constellation
56 : 27 / 3 / 1
Note: Galileo will have a total of 30 satellites with 10 satellites per orbit. Of these 10, only 9 are active and
1.40
one is spare. The 9 satellites
Institute of Astronautics
are equally distributed and therefore have an angular separation of 40°. In this
Prof. U. Walter
sense,Orbital
this picture is false
and Flight because
Mechanics, 10 satellites per orbit are drawn with an angular separation of 36°.
Lecture © 2022, LRT
Constellations
to see at least one satellite
The number of satellites in the cluster decreases sharply with orbital altitude because the
visibility of a satellite increases rapidly with its altitude!
Access Area = b2  2hR

1.41
Optimal Walker Constellations
See this in the book

Altitude [km]
t p f i for a Emin= 10°
5 5 1 43.66° 26992
6 6 4 53.13° 20372
7 7 5 55.69° 12221
8 8 6 61.86° 9389
9 9 7 70.54° 8381
10 10 7 47.93° 6799
12 3 1 50.73° 5441
11 11 4 53.79° 5345
13 13 5 58.44° 4248
15 3 1 53.51° 3852
14 7 4 53.98° 3814
1.42
Non-Walker Constellations
1.43
Eclipse Times
1.44
Beta Angle  (Sun Angle)
90    90
sin   sin i  cos  S  sin    S  cos i  sin  S with

i = Inclination
 = Right Ascension of Ascending Node (RAAN)
S = Declination of the Sun. sin  S  sin 23 .44   sin  S for circular planetary orbits
S = Angle in the ecliptic between the point of Aries and the direction to the Sun
 S  360  D  81 365  1.91 sin 360  D  81 365  0.2
where D  D  1  365  is the day of the year
1.45
Institute of Astronautics Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 677f Prof. U. Walter
Sun Angle – Shadow Times (Eclipse)
Eclipse area = View in the
cross section of the
direction to the
Earth
Sun. Sun rays
The shadow time tE for a circular orbit: are parallel.
2 x  r  cos  sin 
tE  T Transition point
2 R into / out of
eclipse
In which: The orbital period T 
x  r  cos 
T  2 r 3 g 0 R 2 R = Earth radius
r = Orbital radius
r y  r  sin  2 = Eclipse angle
Solid triangle lies in the plane of the
Half eclipse angle: Orbit orbit. Dotted triangle is the
projection of the full triangle onto the
r 2  R2
cross section of the Earth through
the center of the Earth.
cos 
r cos  
R 2  x 2  y 2  r 2 cos2   sin 2   sin 2  

 r 2 sin 2   cos2   sin 2  
T r 2  R2 R r 2  sin 2  sin 2   sin 2 
tE  arccos sin   :
 r cos  arccos in rad cos  cos 
Only for    : arcsin R r 

Valid for a circular orbit sin   cos i  sin  S 
with any inclination sin i  cos  S  sin    S  is there an eclipse
sin  S  sin 23 .44   sin  S
1.49
Eclipse Duration   0
que significa?
fE
h
r 2  R2
 
fE 
1
arccos , r  Rh
 r cos 
Fraccion de tiempo
de la orbita en
1.51
eclipse
Eclipse Duration  = 0
1,4 Mio km =
Earth Orbit
with  = 0
 0
R r 2  sin 2  R R
sin    
cos  r Rh
tE  1 R
f E :   arcsin Fraction of orbit in eclipse
T   Rh
h In GEO is  = 0
In vernal and
fE autumnal equinox
of Earth orbit
1.52
Solar Eclipse in GEO
The solar eclipse in GEO

is maximum at the vernal
(21. March) and autumnal
equinox (21. September)
and amount to 72
minutes. In each case, 22
days before and after
each point, the time of the
possible solar eclipse
begins. The eclipse
duration then increases
rapidly to the maximum of
72 min, and then
decreases again (see
figure). The time in
penumbra is negligibly
short.
1.54
Institute of Astronautics Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 679f Example Prof. U. Walter
Orbit Determination
Astronautics, 2nd ed., Chapter 14
1.56
Radar Tracking Principle
How to determine the orbital elements a, e, i, , , ?
A 25 m dish of the Very Large Array at the

National Radio Astronomy Observatory
(NRAO) at San Antonio, New Mexico, USA
1.57
Institute of Astronautics Astronautics, 2nd ed., p. 499ff Prof. U. Walter
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 682ff © 2022, LRT
S-Band Ranging & Doppler
Pseudo Random-
Code (PN = pseudo
random noise)
Distance determination Radial velocity

via time-of-flight method via Doppler shift
1.59
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture
Astronautics, 2nd ed., S. 501
© 2022, LRT
Determination of Orbital Elements – Radar Tracking
 A 15 m mirror allows the determination of azimuth and elevation
(pointing angles) with a directional accuracy of about 0.1°.
 Distance determination (slant range) by time-of-flight measurement of the
transponder signal from the satellite. Accuracy between 1 m and 20 m.
 Radial velocity accuracy (range rate) typically 0.1-1 mm/s due to
Doppler Shift
The Lase Ranging Satellite of the

natural Environment Research
Counsil
 Angular resolution of
typically one arc second.
 Distance determination
accurate to a few
centimeters by time-of-flight
measurements.
A 25 m dish of the Very Large Array at the

National Radio Astronomy Observatory
(NRAO) at San Antonio, New Mexico, USA
Astronautics, 2nd ed., S. 500

1.61
Orbital Determination – State Vector
At least two measurements of the data at the time tm:

• Azimuth and Elevation (pointing angles)
• Distance (slant range)
• Radial Speed (range rate)
Site-Track Algorithm (see Vallado)

Homotopy Continuation Method (see Montenbruck)
Measuring Predictive
model r, v m Solving the equations of
motion r t , vt  theoretical
of orbit Orbit Model
Mathematical Conversion (see Script)
a, e, , , , i Orbital Elements (Keplerian Elements)

Describes a Keplerian orbit of a body completely
1.62
Institute of Astronautics Astronautics, 2nd ed., p. 502f Prof. U. Walter
4-Way TAR for Modern GEO-Satellites TAR = turnaround ranging
que es?
1. The master station measures both the 2-way range 3. By using several slave stations the
and the 4-way range to a slave station. position vector of the satelite can be
2. From this it can extract the ranges of the satellite to determined with accuracy of about 2 m.
both stations.
The slave station can be a very simple unmanned station. All

that is needed for this setup is a transponder that can bounce
the signal received from the spacecraft back to it. This four-
war TAR significantly reduces both the setup and operational
costs when compared to using standard 2 station ranging.
1.63
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 684
© 2022, LRT
Delta-DOR
for Deep Space Missions
1.64
Orbital and Flight Mechanics, Lecture
Astronautics, 3rd ed., p. 685
© 2022, LRT

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Orbit and Flight Mechanics

Astronautics, 2nd + 3rd ed.,

a.k.a. vernal point

December 22nd June 21st

Migration of the celestial sphere

1. Depending on the type of coordinate system

2. Depending on the origin point of the coordinate system

3. Depending on the position of the x-y- plane

The inertial geocentric-equatorial

The Earth is in the perifocus of

Astronautics, 3rd ed., p.362

A coordinate system of time (Calendar system) requires an accurate:

The original measure for time is the mean

Ground tracks drift westward

Orbits at this orbital

Molniya Orbit (Tundra Orbit)

T = 12 h (24h for Tundra Orbits)

The satellite "pauses" in the first orbit of the day approx.

Advantages: Stays a long time over the northern

i  0 1 orbital period per siderial day

one point every

These two elements determine the

 e = 0.2, i = 20°,  = 30°,  = 0°

Circular orbit 200 km, i=23,5°, one point per

The total coverage is limited in LEO by inclination:

True outer horizon

Let b0 be the horizontal length on the planet surface

Visibilities for h [m] 1,7 10 100 3000 400 km

Instantaneous Access Area

Access Area = b  2hR

what is the purpose of

It is a constellation with t satellites

f – Phase (True Anomaly) between two

to see at least one satellite

Access Area = b2  2hR

See this in the book

sin   sin i  cos  S  sin    S  cos i  sin  S with

The solar eclipse in GEO

How to determine the orbital elements a, e, i, , , ?

A 25 m dish of the Very Large Array at the

Distance determination Radial velocity

The Lase Ranging Satellite of the

A 25 m dish of the Very Large Array at the

Astronautics, 2nd ed., S. 500

At least two measurements of the data at the time tm:

Site-Track Algorithm (see Vallado)

Mathematical Conversion (see Script)

a, e, , , , i Orbital Elements (Keplerian Elements)

The slave station can be a very simple unmanned station. All

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