Luealamai 2010

Simulation & Gaming
43(1) 67–84
Learning About the Unit © 2012 SAGE Publications
Reprints and permission:
Cell and Crystal Lattice sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1046878110378704
With Computerized http://sag.sagepub.com
Simulations and Games:

A Pilot Study
Sutha Luealamai1 and Bhinyo Panijpan1
Abstract
The authors have developed a computer-based learning module on the unit cell of
various types of crystal. The module has two components: the virtual unit cell (VUC)
part and the subsequent unit cell hunter part. The VUC is a virtual reality simulation
for students to actively arrive at the unit cell from exploring, from a broad view, the
crystal lattice of atoms or ions displayed “three dimensionally.” The unit cell hunter
(UCH) part, implemented after the VUC, is a board game with students competing in
assembling the atomic pieces for two types of unit cell (cubic and hexagonal) framework.
The students were evaluated for achievement after having benefited from working
with the learning module and participating in the debriefing. Apart from identical pre-
and posttests at the beginning and end of the activities, students also responded to a
questionnaire. Active participation by the students and the researcher in the debriefing
enhanced learning as set out by the objectives, for example, better visualization of the
three-dimensional structures of various types of unit cell and crystal lattice.
Keywords
3D model, atomic packing, computerized simulation, crystal lattice, cubic system, game,
hexagonal system, quasi-3D, unit cell, virtual reality
The unit cell of a crystal is conventionally introduced in solid state chemistry and physics
as the smallest and most representative unit of crystalline material that, by translation
along the three principal orthogonal planes, can generate a whole crystal lattice. We have
1
Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon, Nakornprathom, Thailand
Corresponding Author:
Bhinyo Panijpan, Institute for Innovative Learning and Faculty of Science, Mahidol University
(Salaya Campus).
Email: scbpn@mahidol.ac.th
Downloaded from sag.sagepub.com at University of Hawaii at Manoa Library on June 14, 2015
68 Simulation & Gaming 43(1)
found the usual two-dimensional (2D) illustrations of the unit cell inadequate in giving
students an insight into how the unit cell represents all the essential physical features
of the crystal. Foley (1996) reported that many undergraduate students find the unit cell
content and symmetry too complicated and highly abstract. One of the reasons is that
the use of 2D representations makes it difficult for students to visualize three-dimensional
figure (3D) on paper or chalkboards. Without good 3D representations of the crystal
lattice and unit cell to learn from, students have a difficult time visualizing them or
solving problems related to them. This situation is also true in mineralogy, where some
students have initial difficulties with certain visual perceptions of 3D crystal models,
their rotation and so on (Ozdemir, 2009). Because learning about this topic involves
spatial perception, students’ existing spatial abilities would have a strong influence in
facilitating mineralogy learning.
In the past few decades, concrete handheld models have been used for demonstrating
mainly the unit cell (Birk & Yezierski, 2003; Cady, 1997; Mattson, 2000; Orlov, Schoeni,
& Chapuis, 2006). From our experience, even when handheld unit cell models are made
available, students still find it difficult to generate a good 3D crystal lattice because the
unit cell pieces are usually opaque and insufficient in number. A computer-drawn model
(Gelder, & Jones, 1980) was proposed as an aid for instructing the topic. However the
latter was presented only as a short videocassette 3D animation without interactivity.
To address these learning problems, we devised a computer-based interactive learning
module, the virtual unit cell (VUC) and the unit cell hunter (UCH), which should challenge
students actively, and in which student groups can participate simultaneously. In the VUC,
the limitations of two-dimensionality are reduced by the rotability of the unit cell and the
crystal lattice. Also the extent of the crystal lattice can be computer generated to imitate
the enormous number of unit cells in a real crystal. With proper rendition, the lattice and
the unit’s internal structures can be probed. In the VUC simulation, students have to deduce
the unit cell from each type of crystal lattice, whereas in the UCH, they have to compete
in putting the correct number and type of atomic pieces in the two types of unit cell.
The Virtual Unit Cell

User Interface
The user interface of the VUC consists of two parts as shown in Figure 1. The left panel
is the navigator to access the desired models. The right panel is the main screen show-
ing the models selected.
Structure of the VUC

The simulations in the VUC encompass three parts:
1. The first part involves models of cubic crystal and hexagonal crystal, both
of which are composed of three components: lattice structure, atomic pieces
involved in the unit cell, and type of unit cell.
Luealamai and Panijpan 69
Figure 1. The screen showing the two main panels of the VUC simulation
NOTE: VUC = virtual unit cell.
2. The second part, deduction of the unit cell, provides graphics showing how
to deduce the unit cell from a lattice.
3. The last one, simulation of the unit cell translation, simulates the way the
unit cell translates along the three principal orthogonal planes to generate the
crystal lattice. The VUC structure is shown in Figure 2.
Main Advantages of the Simulations

The main advantages of our simulations are the ability to display the lattice and unit cell
as virtual 3D models with contrasting-colored atoms and rotability of the models to make
them appear “real.” In the process of deducing the unit cell, the color of the atoms and
pieces thereof can be changed by a click, as shown in Figure 3. The latter feature helps
facilitate the gradual deduction of the unit cell from a crystal lattice as the students
gradually narrow the number of unit cells down to the irreducible one eventually. In the
simulation of the unit cell translation to generate the lattice, the previous steps are reversed
now by expanding of the unit cell along the xy, yz, and zx planes to generate a larger
lattice (Figure 4). The instructor should ensure that students do not misconstrue this unit
cell translation as the mechanism for crystal growth.
The VUC
Crystal system models

Deduction of the unit Simulation of the unit cell
Lattice structure cell translation
Atoms involved
Unit cell type Cubic system
Hexagonal system
Figure 2. The VUC showing the three main parts and subtopics of the program
NOTE: VUC = virtual unit cell.
Figure 3. The color of the atoms can be changed by a click during the narrowing down to
an irreducible unit representing the unit cell
The Unit Cell Hunter

User Interface
At each level of the game, the user interface of the UCH consists of two scenes. For
the first scene, the player collects atomic pieces of the unit cell to put them in their
proper places on the cubic framework (the second scene) as shown in Figure 5.
The present game is an improvement on the pilot one trialed earlier. In the early
stages of our game design, we challenged the students to make side scrolling moves to
eliminate enemies and to jump over floating objects (see Figure 6A). Assessing the
game with undergraduate students and looking into their responses to questionnaires
and interviews led us to conclude that students with low game skills encountered the
problem of controlling the characters, with the consequence that they were unjustly
penalized. This problem was discussed at the International Simulation and Gaming
Association 2009 conference, and we benefited from suggestions for a change in the
genre of the game, such as changing from a side-scrolling game to a board-based
(tile-based) game with only up-down and sideways moves as shown in Figure 6B.
Figure 4. The step-by-step 3D simulation of unit cell translation to reproduce the larger lattice
Figure 5. In the pilot version, the pieces are picked up (A) and assembled to make up the
unit cell (B) while the player overcomes obstacles and red herring
Structure of the UCH

The UCH game has four difficulty levels, starting with the easiest to the most difficult
unit cell structures: simple cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic and hex-
agonal close packed.
Figure 6. The game was transformed from: (A) one demanding more manipulative skills
involving side scrolling to (B) the present one based on a board game
1. Level 1: Primitive cubic

2. Level 2: Body-centered cubic
3. Level 3: Face-centered cubic
4. Level 4: Hexagonal close packed
Each level has two scenes of the same type:
1. Scene 1 involves collecting correct number and type of the atomic pieces of
the unit cell.
2. Scene 2 involves putting the collected pieces at their proper places in the unit
cell to make a quasi-3D display. The game structure and relationship between
level and scene are shown in Figure 7.
Main Advantages of the UCH

The students acquire manipulative skills and visual knowledge in going through the
manipulative and cognitive challenges from Levels 1 to 4. Also we have made the unit
cell framework for each type rotatable to facilitate the assembly of the pieces as shown
in Figure 8.
Because the atomic pieces may visually block each other in the static framework,
thus causing perceptual inconvenience to the gamer, we have created a rotatable cubic
frame to make the blocked unfilled spaces visible and ensure that correct pieces are
put in as shown in Figure 9. This type of realistic interface prevents irrelevant obstacles
from diminishing learning possibilities (Pelletier, 2009).
START Level 1: Primitive Scene1 Scene2
Scene1 Scene2
Level 2: Body centered
Level 3: Face centered Scene1 Scene2
Level 4: Hexagonal Scene1 Scene2 STOP
Figure 7. Illustration of the UCH game structure and relationship between level and scene
NOTE: UCH = unit cell hunter.
Figure 8. Rotatable cubic framework allowing different viewpoints
Relationship between the VUC and UCH components

The scheme in Figure 10 shows the relationship and the steps in the learning module.
The VUC is a simulation tool for helping students deduce the unit cell and generate the
lattice. The UCH is a game for students to collect the correct type and number of pieces
and put them in their proper places in the unit cell.
The improved visualization skills acquired in this VUC help students play the UCH
game in which they have to find the missing unit cell pieces and assemble them cor-
rectly. The UCH game has three steps:
Figure 9. A rotatable cubic frame for better visualization and playing of the game
Level 4
Level 3
Exploring 3D model of atoms in
Level 2
the lattice
Level 1
Deducing the unit
cell from lattice
Demonstrating the deduction of

the unit cell from the lattice N
correct
Gathering atomic pieces for the

Showing relationships between
unit cell scene 1
lattice, atoms involved and unit
cell
Constructing the unit cell scene 2
Figure 10. Illustration of the relationship and the steps in the learning module
1. Identifying the unit cell pieces. The players should be able to perceive what are
missing from each type of unit cell they are being challenged with. Perceptive
skills come from deducing the unit cell in the VUC.
2. Collecting the atomic pieces. The players should know how many and what
kind of pieces are missing and collect them.
3. Assembling the pieces in the unit cell. The number and kind of pieces must be
put in and positioned correctly in each type of the unit cell.
The UCH games have four levels of difficulty, for both the cubic and hexagonal
crystal systems. Figure 11 shows the ways students/players use knowledge from the
VUC for the UCH game. Figure 11A shows that, at beginning of each level in the UCH,
students can use their knowledge gained from “simulation of the unit cell translation”
and “deduction of the unit cell” to find out the unit cell type. In Figure 11B, the students
Figure 11. Diagram showing the way the student uses knowledge acquired from the VUC
simulation for the UCH game
use “3D model of unit cell” for collecting all unit cell parts and constructing a correct
and complete unit cell type.
Research Method
Research Objectives
This pilot study aimed (a) to determine the effectiveness of the learning module on the
students’ learning about the unit cell and crystal lattice and (b) to assess their opinions
on the module they had actively participated in.
Participants
The participants in this study were 23 undergraduate students, from the Faculty of
Science of a competitive university, who were interested in computer graphics and
animations and volunteered to participate in the study. All of them had no previous
exposure to the unit cell concepts.
Research Design
We employed a single-group pretest–posttest research design. The group took the pretest,
participated in learning with the module, underwent the debriefing, and finally took
the identical posttest. The pretest and posttest scores were used to evaluate the effects
the learning module had on the students’ learning achievements about the unit cell. The
test comprised six questions designed to examine exactly what the students learned
from the module.
The rating scale questionnaire was then given to the students after the posttest to
evaluate their opinions of the module. All eight questions in the questionnaire were graded
as strongly agree = 5, agree = 4, undecided = 3, disagree = 2, and strongly disagree = 1.
The research design is shown in the Figure 12.
Data collection
The data collection steps are as follows:
1. The students took the pretest.

2. The lecturer went through the VUC followed by the UCH activities.
3. The researcher and the participants performed the debriefing via group
discussion.
4. The students took the posttest
5. The students responded to the questions in the questionnaire about their opinions
on the learning module.
Pretest VUC UCH Debriefing Posttest Questionnaire
30 min 60 min 60 min 60 min 30 min
Figure 12. Research design
Data Analysis
The pretest and the posttest scores were paired and analyzed with the paired-samples
t test statistic using SPSS. The effect size was calculated to examine the magnitude of
a treatment effect using the equation and the general guide proposed by Cohen (as cited
in Becker, 2000). Each question in the questionnaire was analyzed individually for the
frequency of students’ opinions as rated on the graduated response scale.
Research Hypotheses
We expected the VUC to help students visualize the unit cell and the crystal structure
more easily. In the same way, the UCH should help students construct knowledge by
themselves, while enjoying the learning environment. Pre-exposure to the VUC followed
by the UCH should improve learning and students’ attitude toward these difficult and
highly abstract topics.
We proposed the null (H0) and alternative (H1) hypotheses for a more rigorous sta-
tistical evaluation of the module for any learning improvement as follows:
_ _
H0: The pretest mean score (X 1) and the posttest mean score (X 2) are not
different:
_ _
(X 1) = (X 2)
_ _
H1: The posttest mean score (X 2) is greater than the pretest mean score (X 1):
_ _
(X 2) > (X 1)
Results and Discussion

Debriefing
At the end of the learning unit, students participated in the debriefing, a group discus-
sion guided by the researcher, to ensure that they achieved the learning objectives as
much as possible. After playing the UCH game, all participants adjourned to a room
with a round table and began the three phases of debriefing (Steinwachs, 1992) as
follows:
1. Description phase. The researcher asked the participants to recount their

experiences in the game. Occasionally, the participants were asked questions
to prompt them to recall events to which they had not paid sufficient attention
or that they had forgotten to mention. Some of the questions were
•• What happened during game playing?
•• Which task was the most difficult?
•• How did you feel?
•• How many participants managed to assemble all the pieces? How did you
do it?
•• Which aspects of the game were most challenging? How did you overcome
the problems?
We collected some interesting observations from this phase:
•• Students who succeeded in assembling the pieces without any mistakes
agreed that the 3-D models of the unit cells in each VUC helped in their
playing of the game.
•• The most difficult task in the game was to figure out the unit cell from the
lattice. They agreed that different colored atoms helped them visualize the
unit cell, which was being deduced, more easily.
•• It was very challenging, especially, in the case of the hexagonal close pack-
ing because of the large number of types and pieces of atoms involved.
2. Analysis phase. The emphasis was for the participants to relate problems
encountered in the game to those of learning about the unit cell. Some ques-
tions to help achieving the objectives were
•• Which activity(ies) could you have used for learning more about the unit cell?
•• Were there any simulated situations that you normally do not find in your
classroom?
•• Were there aspects of normal classroom learning about the unit cell not
addressed in the game simulation?
Toward the end of this phase, the researcher made a summary of what the par-
ticipants had contributed to ensure common understanding so they could apply
what they had learned together.
Results from phase 2 showed that all participants could very well relate task
performance in the game to learning the contents of the unit cell. They also con-
curred that all tasks had relevance to all the unit cells. On the contrary, they found
that some unit cells had not been simulated in the game.
3. Application phase. This phase emphasized what the game had to offer so that
the participants understood what they had learned to solve problems in the
classroom and in their daily life. The researcher asked the participants about
what they had learned and how they were going to exploit it based on such
questions as follows:
•• Has your experience in playing game helped you in any special way? Please
elaborate.
•• Can you imagine any future situation that you can bring your experience
to bear on? How?
We found that the participants were confident that they could apply the knowledge
gained from game in authentic learning situations:
1. The participants indicated that they understood the arrangement of atoms
in the unit cell and crystal lattice.
2. One third of the participants also believed they could visualize other unit
cells (not yet simulated) better so much so that they thought they could
apply their newly acquired skills in solving future visuospatial problems.
The Effectiveness of the Learning Module

The paired-samples t test results from SPSS show significant differences between
the pretest and posttest mean scores as can be seen from the column “Significance”
in Table 1. Therefore the alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted and it can be concluded
that the posttest mean score is greater than the pretest mean score. The statistical results
are shown in Table 1.
Effect Size (ES)

The formula used for determining the effect size is as follows:
M1 − M2 Μ1 − Μ 2 ,
ES = Cohen’ s d = =
σ pooled (σ12 + σ 2 2 )
2
where M1 = posttest mean score, M2 = pretest mean score, σpooled = pooled standard
deviation, σ1 = standard deviation of M1, σ2 = standard deviation of M2.
For this work
ES = 7.3.
According to the general guide developed by Cohen, the effect size at 7.3 of this work
indicates a large treatment effect, implying that treatment with the learning module had
a large effect on the aimed learning achievements.
Students’ Opinions on the Module

The results obtained are presented separately, statement by statement, as in Figure 13.
For most statements, the highest frequency of the students’ opinions falls in the range
80
Table 1. The Results of Paired-Samples t Test
Paired-Samples Statistics
Standard
Standard Error
Mean N Deviation Mean
Pair 1 16.8261 23 2.07040 0.43171

postscore
Pair 1 3.3913 23 1.58800 0.33112
prescore
Paired-Samples Test
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Interval
of the Difference
Standard Standard. Significance
Mean Deviation Error Mean Lower Upper t df (Two-Tailed)
Pair 1 postscore– 13.43478 2.55532 0.53282 12.32978 14.53978 25.214 22 .000
prescore
Figure 13. Frequency of responses to the eight questions in the questionnaire
of strongly agree to agree, except for Question Number 2, which falls in the category
of strongly agree. The results revealed that most of the students showed high satisfaction
with the module in terms of understanding, knowledge gained, and visualization skills.
Compared with learning from paper 2D illustrations, 3D handheld models made from
ping-pong balls or folded paper boxes with atomic pieces drawn on them, our VUC
module helped the students understand better the relationship between the unit cell and
the crystal lattice. The students found it fun to learn the fundamentals of the unit cell from
the UCH game. For playing the latter game, they also benefited from the VUC simulation.
There was a consensus among the students that studying the VUC beforehand helped
improve skills in playing the UCH game by sharpening their visualization abilities.
Conclusion
A major effort in this study was spent in making the VUC simulation and the UCH game.
We designed the programs for the simulation and game including the atomic pieces and
frameworks for all crystal types reported here.
We conducted a pilot study to assess learning improvement of 23 undergraduates
participating in our learning module on the unit cell and the crystal lattice. The students
were expected not only to explore the computer graphic models of crystal lattices and
unit cells in a 3D environment but also practice a method of deducing the unit cell from
a lattice. Statistical analysis showed that posttest scores were significantly higher than
those of the pretest with a large effect size. From the above, we can safely conclude
that the learning module aided in the visualization and learning of contents presented
as on-screen 3D simulations. From their responses to our questionnaire, most students
were satisfied with the module up to the level of agree to strongly agree.
The main advantage of a computer game for education is that students are personally
engaged, especially when game activities are challenging and lead to more analysis and
problem solving (see, e.g., Whitton, forthcoming). However, the challenge should not
be based too heavily on manipulative skills. The emphasis of hand-to-eye skills may
incur extraneous variables that are difficult to interpret in terms of learning. The fun
generated by the game should also not lead to the sacrifice of authentic learning. Thus
one pilot study should at least be conducted to eliminate effects that do not help student
learning.
Finally, we would like to propose some improvements for a follow-up study:
1. Change the research design to a two-group experimental one to increase the

validity of the study.
2. Perform validity and reliability tests for the research instruments and/or use
available standard tests.
Authors’ Note
This article is a substantially augmented rewrite of a paper presented at the 40th conference
of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA), organized by the Society
of Simulation and Gaming of Singapore, Yeo Gee Kin (National University of Singapore), and
Cai Yiyu (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore), from 29 June to 3 July, 2009, and
published as Panjipan, B., & Sutha Luealamai, S. (2009, July). A game and simulation multi-
media to teach atomic packing in crystal unit cells. Paper presented at the 40th Conference of
ISAGA, Singapore.
Acknowledgments
We thank David Crookall for valuable suggestions and guidance during the preparation of the
article. Ethan Kennerly’s helpful comments led to a change in the genre of our game. The editorial
assistance of Jonnie Hill and Mercedes T. Rodrigo and the anonymous reviewers have greatly
improved this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication
of this article.
Funding
This research was supported by a Mahidol University research grant.
References
Becker, L. A. (2000). Effect size calculators. Retrieved from http://web.uccs.edu/lbecker/
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Education, 80, 157-159.
Cady, S. G. (1997). Use of pom pons to illustrate cubic crystal structures. Journal of Chemical
Education, 74, 794-795.
Foley, B. (1996, November). Using visualization tools to improve undergraduates’ understand-
ing of crystal structure. Paper presented at the proceedings of the 26th Annual Frontiers in
Education Conference, Salt Lake City, UT.
Gelder, J. I., & Jones, L. L. (1980). A 3-dimensional animated videocassette on the unit cell.
Journal of Chemical Education, 57, 590.
Mattson, B. (2000). Cubic unit cell construction kit. Journal of Chemical Education, 77,
622-623.
Orlov, I., Schoeni, N., & Chapuis G. (2006). Crystallography on mobile phones. Journal of
Applied Crystallography, 39, 595-597.
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.com/content/rg283w01r3j3v173/fulltext.pdf.
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and Media, 1, 83-101.
Steinwachs, B. (1992). How to facilitate a debriefing. Simulation & Gaming: An International
Journal, 23, 186-195.
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Bios
Sutha Luealamai is a PhD candidate in science and technology education at the Institute for
Innovative Learning. His current research interests are gaming simulation, multimedia application,
and interactive media. During 1998-2009, he received several awards on multimedia application
developments from NECTEC, Ministry of Education, and The Institute for the Promotion of
Teaching Science and Technology. Contact: suthait@hotmail.com.
Bhinyo Panijpan, PhD, is director of the Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University,
Thailand. Contact: scbpn@mahidol.ac.th.

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Simulation & Gaming

Simulations and Games:

Sutha Luealamai1 and Bhinyo Panijpan1

The Virtual Unit Cell

Structure of the VUC

Main Advantages of the Simulations

Crystal system models

The Unit Cell Hunter

Structure of the UCH

1. Level 1: Primitive cubic

Each level has two scenes of the same type:

Main Advantages of the UCH

START Level 1: Primitive Scene1 Scene2

Level 3: Face centered Scene1 Scene2

Level 4: Hexagonal Scene1 Scene2 STOP

Figure 8. Rotatable cubic framework allowing different viewpoints

Relationship between the VUC and UCH components

Demonstrating the deduction of

Gathering atomic pieces for the

Constructing the unit cell scene 2

1. The students took the pretest.

Pretest VUC UCH Debriefing Posttest Questionnaire

30 min 60 min 60 min 60 min 30 min

Figure 12. Research design

Results and Discussion

1. Description phase. The researcher asked the participants to recount their

The Effectiveness of the Learning Module

Effect Size (ES)

Students’ Opinions on the Module

Pair 1 16.8261 23 2.07040 0.43171

Figure 13. Frequency of responses to the eight questions in the questionnaire

1. Change the research design to a two-group experimental one to increase the

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

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