* 130 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS: PARTICLE 7.12, Radial and transverse components of velocity and acceleration. We take a fixed point O as the pole and the line OX as the initial line, Let (r, 0) and (r + dr, 0 + 80) be the polar co-ordinates of two positions Pand Q of a moving particle at times ¢ and (¢ + dt) on its path. Thus the chord PQ is the displacement of the particle in time dt. Let QM be the perpendicular from Q on OP produced so that PM and QM ate the components of displacement PQ along OP (radial) and perpendicular to OP (transversal), Let wand v be the radial and transversal components of velocity at P, while (u + du) and (v + 6v) are those of the particle at Q. Here dtbeing very small, 601s very small and 5ris also very small. Now a = Lt isplacement along OP in time of uo ot PM OM - OP “Lb > -L wo Of ot ui (r +r) cos 80-1 lu ot 0 “Lt &e+8/).1-r. since 80-+ 0 as 6f-+'0 and then uno oF cos80 = 1, . neglecting — small quantities above the first order or dr “ea” wee ()MOTION IN A PLANE 131 Also o = Lt displacement wndiulae to OP in time dt wo IM. =u QM uso Ot - up e+8n sin 80 0 ot ae sin 8080 wn tO) 80 te ~ 49, sin 60 Tn since Lt “ee, 7! = rd. wee (2) Thus 7 and r@ are the radial and the transverse (cross-radial) velocities of the particle. The actual velocity is the resultant of these two. Let f, and f, be the components of acceleration of the particle along OP (radial) and perpendicular to OP (transversal). Then we have fi = Lt Shange of velocity along OP in time dt 1-0 bt = Lt Welocity along OP in time t+ dt)- (velocity along OP in time t) at ato = Le {ut du) cos 80 ~ (0+ dv) sin 56) - u uo ot = Le Wet bud ~ (0480/80 - 4 5g 20 as Oto 0 uo ot and then in circular measure sin 50 = 80, cosd0 = 1, neglecting small quantities above the first order 80) _ du do dt dt by (1) and @) @): cd ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE to OP in time dt fhe u change of velocity perpendicular to OP in time t+ 80) = .to OP in time 1} eu a uno lt ou ecto aoe ea te. 1-0 (u + bu) sin 50 + (v + 50) cos. bt neglecting small quantities above the first order 80, b0) Saas (8 @ do pibae ty al , +2, by (I)and(@2) = 2rberd t ‘ y > -12 @b, ix 2 te A ‘The: actual opecslarationyol, the partici isthe, requliant of fir and f2. Cor. If tie path of the particle be a circle, then, with its centreas the pole, r is constant and hence no sothat we have f; = -r0?.and fz = 16. Alternative method. We can find these results in the following way too : Let the cartesian co-ordinates of the point P with OX and OY as axes ‘be (x, y) and the polar co-ordinates be (r, 6) with OXas the initial line. Then x = rcos@, ys rsind. SpaceMOTION IN A PLANE 133 Differentiating with respect to t, the time, we have dx rs ino dt cos 07, -rsind 7 o 48. sino +r cos 0 dt sin 07, +1 cos 07 Fig 39 ue pe of velociy along OP dx = Goo + sin@= £, by (1) » = component of velocity ppt toOP a = Hoos cos 0 -& sino = ra, by (1). Differentiating (1) again with respect to t, we get 2 2 éo as : *cos0- 240.8 sing-r colt -rsin0 3" dt dt ag ay er dr dO +rcos o£. at sino ert ar cs O- r sino (2 r eB fi = com ment of aceleration along OP por dx dy i dr (a0) qo +b sind = ar(F fa = component of acceleration perpendicular toOP # = 21 cy AX cing « ofr i, #0 1d de? °S0~ Ga SiN = Zar ae ae ~ ratiM ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE 7.13 Components of acceleration referred to a set of 7 rotating axes. 3 Let OX and OY be a set of rectangular axes which revolve about O in any manner in their own plane. Let OA be the initial position of OX and is fixed in space. Let 0 be the angle which OX makes with OA at time t, Assume further that (x, y) are the co-ordinates of the moving. P referred to OX and OY as axes, Let PM and PN be the ~ perpendiculars from P to OX and OY respectively. Fig. 40 Now, the polar co-ordinates of the point M are (x , 8) referred toO as the pole and OA as the initial line. Hence the components of velocity of M are x along OX and x6 along MP while the acceleration components of M are (2- x) along OX and +4 (26) along MP. Again, the polar co-ordinates of N are (y, 90° + 0) referred to O as the pole and OA as the initial line. The components of velocity of N are 3 along ON and yb along PN produced, since 4 (00' +0) = 0. Furthermore, the components of acceleration of N are (y - yd) along ON and (¥ d)along PN produced. Hence we have u = velocity of P parallel to OX = velocity of P relative to M, parallel to OX + velocity of M parallel to OX = -yosx,MOTION IN A PLANE 135 v = velocity of P parallel to OY = velocity of P relative to M, parallel to OY + velocity of M parallel to OY = y+, U = acceleration of P parallel toOX = acceleration of P relative to M, parallel to OX + acceleration of M parallel to OX ---= dy 6) +x - x, V = acceleration of P parallel toOY = acceleration of P relative to M, parallel to OY + acceleration of M parallel to OY - 2,14 y- a tog 2). Cor. In particular, if the axes OX and OY revolve with constant angular velocity w such that @ = «, then the components of velocity of P along OX and OY are respectively (i - yw) and (y + xm), while the components of acceleration along OX and OY are respectively 3 - xu? - 2oy and y - yo? + Zoe. 7.14. Hodograph. If, from a fixed point straight lines be drawn which are parallel and proportional to the velocities of a particle moving on a plane curve, then the locus of the extremities of these lines is called the hodograph of the motion of the particle. Let P and Q be two consecutive points on the path of a moving Particle at times ¢ and (t + dt). Let the velocities of the particle at P and Qbev and (v + bz) respectively. Let O be a fixed point from which the straightlines OP’ and OQ’ are drawn torepresent the velocities parallel and proportional to v and (v+6v). Then the curve PQ’ is the hodograph of the motion of P. Now we have chord P’Q' = change in velocity as the particle moves from P to Q.v6 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Hence when Q approaches P, P’Q’ will be the tangent at P’ to the hodograph in hen Thus,in the limit,P’Q’ will give the direction of ; ; B v + dv Q' ~! 7 ° f ’ pf v + dv v P q A ° ‘ Fig. 41 . | acceleration at P whose magnitude will be given by { the rate of change of velocity at P | eu chord P’Q’ Lt chord PQ’ are PQ ao ot uo arc P'Q’ ot = velocity of P’ in the hodograph. Thus the acceleration of P is equal to the velocity of the corresponding point P on the hodograph: Hence, if (x, y) and (2’, y') be the cartesian co-ordinates of the point P and P’ respectively referred to the axes through O, then from above, we have | ont ro At x Mat and y Mt ss (1) de te a ey and a hg and natty see Q) where 2 is a constant. 7.15. Hodograph in polar co-ordinates. Let P’ whose polar co-ordinates are (r, 0) be any point on the hodograph having cartesian co-ordinates (2’, y'). Let P(x, y) be theMOTION IN A PLANE 07 corresponding point on the curve and let v be the velocity at P on the curve. dx d oi ont we Thus = AGP and y Mt (a) For the point P’, r= Ve%4y? and tand « x. Therefore r= AV (ai) “(@] = bo. dt dt Mtg L424, Aiso tan® ¥ dx” dx tany, Mi where wp is the angle which the direction of the velocity at P makes with a fixed direction. Therefore 06 = y. Hence, to find the locus of P’, thatis, of (z’, y’) or (r, 8), any point on the hodograph, we should express v in terms of y so that v= fw). Then vis to be replaced by’; andy by 0. Thus the equation of the hodograph isr = 2{0). 7.16. Illustrative Examples. Ex. 1. A particle describes an equiangular spiralr = ae® in such a manner that its acceleration has no radial component. Prove that its angular velocity is constant and the magnitudes of the velocity and the acceleration are each proportional to r. Here the radial component of acceleration is zero. Then 7-P = 0. Therefore 7 = re San Now re ae’, Therefore + = ae°O = rd. @138 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE. From (2), Farberd = rd? + 76, by Q) = F+r6, by (1). Hence r-0. But r#0, hence 6 =0. Therefore integrating, we have 6 = constant, that is, angular velocity is constant = k (say) : Again, 7-7, byQ) = kr. 8) Therefore v? = 7? +r?6? = 77472, by 2) = 287, by (3) or, ve VvZkr. Therefore v varies as r. Now the radial acceleration being zero, the resultant acceleration = transverse acceleration 14 rT (7) = 14), since @ is constant poten. = 22% r "ek, kr = 2k, Therefore the resultant acceleration varies as r. Ex. 2. The velocities of u particle along and perpendicular to the radius vector from a fixed origin are hx and 40 , Find the path and show that the accelerations along and perpendicular to the radius vector are 1 Nr" 0? and WO (- + *) respectively. dr 40 Wehave St = dy and rtm 40. ne)MOTION IN A PLANE 139 Dividing , we get i 8 dr" de hMO " Po pe which on integration gives the path as ole 7 log @ +c, where cis a constant. r Redial acceleration = 7 Transverse acceleration = if (7d) = 20478 - 2a weer, by (1). Now, from (1), by differentiating, we have 70470 = pO. Therefore ro- wt aay Ho 8 HE uy, Hence the transverse acceleration is equal to ayo + #2 (=a) = wofar+t-a) - nsfr+H) Ex. 3. A particle P possesses two constant velocities u and v such that w is always parallel to a fixed direction OX and v is always perpendicular to the radius vector OP. Show that the path of the particle is a conic with focus O and eccentricity u/v, Let OX be the initial line and let the particle P be at a point (r,0) al any time ¢ referred to Oas the pole. Resolving, the velocities u and v along OP and perpendicular to OP, we get dr a” ucos@ 40 and va = v-usind,140 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Dividing , we get eer: lide, _ucos8.. rd ~ v-usind dr u cos @ 40s yeusina Fig. 42 Integrating, we have logr = - log (v- wu sin@) + loge, nega (I) where c is a constant. We assume that when @ = 0, that is, when the particle is on the initial line OX, r = 1, then (1) gives log! = -log v+loge. Therefore c=b. Putting for cin (1), we get Jog {r(v - u sin @)} = log (lv) or, 1. 1-Zsin@. ‘Thus the path described by the particle isa conic with O as the focus and asits eccentricity. Note. The path described will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as u<,=Of>v. Ex.4. An insect craols at a constant rate u along the spoke of a cart wheel, of radius a, the cart moving with a velocity v. Find the acceleration along and perpendicular to the spoke. [B.H.1984 ; C.H.1993 } The cart moves with a constant velocity v ; hence the acceleration of the centre O of the wheel is zero,MOTION IN A PLANE M1 u being the speed of the insect along a sopke, 7 = constant = u, oom i(1) inwhich r = OP, P being the position of the insect at time ¢ on the spoke along OP which makes an angle @ with the downward drawn vertical OZ. Fig. 43 do» Now we have ae since v is the velocity of the centre of the wheel of radius a. do The -a— erefore v= ey Hence the acceleration of P along OP is ar (doy ae "\at wid dike eons @ dt and the acceleration of P perpendicular to OP is 2d) 1d rat ae ras a, ye at cae -240- a, by (1). Ex. 5. A straight smooth tube revolves with angular velocity w in a horizontal plane about one extremity which is fixed. If at zero time a particle inside it be at a distance a from a fixed end and moving with velocity V along the tube, then show that its distance at time t is acosh wt + sinh wt. °wa ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS: PARTICLE Let the initial position of the tube be along the initial line OX and the fixed end O of the tube be taken as the pole. Let the particle be at P after time such that OP = rand ZXOP = 0. ; oO x Fig. 44 Since the particle moves with constant velocity V along the tube, its radial acceleration is then zero. Hence ér__ (dey a =0. eee ey The tube rotates with constant angular velocity; hence dt Then (1) becomes ‘Solution of this equation is given by 1 = Acoshot +B sinh ot, Oy where A and B are arbitrary constants, to be determined by the initial ne Initially, the particle is at a distance a from O. Hence r =a at t= 0. Substituting this in (2), we geta = A. Again, differentiating (2) with respect to t, we get £ «Aw sinh ot + Bo cosh wt. . @Q) dr i We have att = 0, Wr" r Hence (3) gives V = Bu. i aMOTION IN A PLANE bad Theretore Bo Y « Putting for A and B in (2), we get the required distance as r= acoshat + sinhwt. ° Ex.6. A smooth straight thin tube revolves with uniform angular velocity ina vertical plane about the extremity which is fixed. Ifat zerotime the tube behorizontal and a particle inside it be at a distance a from the fixed end and moving with a velocity V along the tube, then find its distance at time t. Let the tube revolve round O for time t with angular velocity @ so that it moves through an angle @ = wt. Fig. 45 Let OP = r, where P is the position of the particle at time t. The equation of motion is then ar ao = acceleration along OP =-g sino =-g sinol. The complementary soli Ac*! + Be-*!, that is, L coshwt+M sinh wt, where L and M are arbitrary constants and the particular integral is pig (-ssinet) - asap Thus the complete solution is 1 = Leosh ot ¢M sinhat » 282%. oN™ ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS: PARTICLE Now,att = 0, 7 and re V. Differentiating (1) with respect to t, we get 7 = Lo snhet +Mo coshat + cos at. From (1) and (2), we havea = L. From (3) and (2), we have Ve Mor Xx Vee on, Mes me) Putting these values in (1), we get the required distance as Vv sin wt ae acoshor + (5-285) sinh at» Se Ex. 7. A particle describes a parabola under gravity. Show that the hodograph of its motion is a straight line parallel to the axis of the parabola and described with uniform velocity. : Let P(x’, y)) be a point on the hodograph and the corresponding point on the curve be P(x, y). Since the particle describesa parabolic path under gravity, the equations of motion at any instant are bx ey +0 and SY - -5, Integrating the first, we get 4 = constant = ¢ (say). Again, from the property of the hodograph, we have 1d x AF ode = k (say), ‘ ‘Thus the locus of (¥’, y), that is, the hodograph is the vertical line x’ = k which is parallel to the axis of the parabola which is the axis of y. dt dy : Againwenave 22. £5. 0 wy aa ae 7 ae 7 Asthe velocity in the hodograph is this will be Ag which is constant. iMOTION IN A PLANE “5 Ex. 8. The hodograph of an orbit is a parabola whose ordinate increases uniformly. Show that the orbit is a semi-cubical parabola. Let the equation of the hodograph be y'? = 4ax’ which is a parabola and let (xy) bea point on the curve corresponding toa point (x’, yon the hodograph. , dx 2 a Then we have x’ = ASF and: y= ASL ae) Now,as the ordinate of the hodograph increases uniformly, we have wy a = (say). Integrating, we get y' = kt, vs @ assuming that y' and ¢ vanish together. Putting (2) in the equation of the hodograph y'? = 4ax’, we get lee, x ‘G a erry @) Hence, from (1), (2) and (3), we have Integrating these equations and assuming that x and y vanish together with ¢, we have oki im yo ds Eliminating ¢ from these two equations, we get 2 (RYE 5° (Ie = 4b (say), thats, 2 = 4by which is the equation of a semi-cubical parabola. Examples VII (B) 1. If the angular velocity of a moving point about a fixed origin be constant, then show that the transverse acceleration varies as its radial velocity,as ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE 2 The velocities ofa particle along and perpendicular to the radius vector from a fixed origin are Ar? and 40" respectively. Lava ns se Show that the equation to the path is = 35 +, nee Show further that the components: of acceleration along | n perpendicular to the radius vector are 3 ‘ 039 i ae -wt and Aur 4240 respectively. 3. A particle describes the curve r =,ac* with consiant angular velocity. Show that its radial acceleration is zero and the ides acceleration varies as the distance from the pole. 4. A patticle describes an €quiangular spiral r = ‘ae with constant velocity. Find the components of velocity and of the acceleration along the radius vector and perpendicular to it: 5. A small bead slides with constant speed v on a path in the shape | of a cardioide r = a(1 +cos 8). » Show. that the value of ,.0.is 2 sec, and. that the-radial 3 2 att component of the acceleration is constant. 2 6. If the path of a particle be r = atan@ and the acceleration be | directed towards the origin, then show that the acceleration is > " perk: ceniis e 7. If the radial and transverse velocities of ‘a particle be always proportional to each other,.then show that the path is arvequiangular spiral. 4 If, in addition to the above, the radial and the transverse accelerations too be proportional to each other, then show that the velocity of the particle varies as some power of radius vector. 8. The acceleration of a point moving in a plane curve is resolved. into two components, one parallel to the initial line and the’ othe along, the radius vector. Prove that these components are" * aia ght and £10 dy 4¥- e RB a0 BC+ where k= 72.Ex. V1 (B) MOTION IN A PLANE “7 9. A boat, which is rowed with constant velocity u, starts from a point A on the bank of a river which flows with a constant velocity 0 and it points always towards a point B on the other bank e@actly opposite to. A. Find the equation of the path of the boat. Ifu = », then show that the path is a parabola whose focus is B. 10. A smooth straight tube rotates in a horizontal plane about a point in itself with uniform angular velocity w. At time t = 0a particle is inside the tube at rest'relative to the tube at a distance a from the point about which the tube rotates. Show that af time F the distance of the particle from the point of rotation is a cosh wf. If the length of the tube be b, then show that the direction in which the particle flies out is inclined to the tube at an angle a such that tana = [C.H. 1972} b Waa 11. A straight smooth tube turns ‘about one extremity O in a horizontal plane with uniform /angelar velocity w. Originally a'particle is placed in the tube at a distance a from O and projected towards O with a velocity V. Show that, if @ < x, then the particle will reach Ointime dh @. oy 12. A particle of mass m moves in a smooth tube which rotates in a horizontal plane about one end A with constant angular velocity « . The particle is initially at rest at A and is acted on by a constant force which produces a constant acceleration f along the tube, Find the reaction of the tube on the particle at time t. 13. A smooth tube of length 2a is capable of turning ina horizontal plane about one extremity and has a particle of mass m inside it, If initially the particle be at rest at the middle point of the tube and the tube rotates with uniform angular velocity w, then show that the Pressure of the tube on the particle when it is at a distance r from the fixed end is 2m w Va aE, Find also the time when it emerges out of the tube.=) we ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS: PARTICLE | 14) A smooth straight tube AB of length «rotates in the horizontal plane with constant. angular. velocity @ about one of its:ends A, A particle placed at the other end B is projected towards the fixed end with velocity aw. Show that the particle will have travelled half the tube after a time { log 2 and that it will not reach the fixed:end'A ina finite time. [To show t+ @ as 1.04) ie 15. A particle is at rest on a smooth horizontal plane which commences to tum about a straight line lying in itself with constant — angular velocity w downwards, Ifa be the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation at zero time, then show that the body will leave the plane at time t given by the equation aa asinhot + 3X; cosh ot =X cost, [ T.H. 1992) [The particle leaves the plane when the reaction is zero.] 16. A thin straight smooth tube is made to revolve upwards witha constant angular velocity win a vertical plane about one extremity O. | When itis in a horizontal position, a particle is at rest in itata distance | a from the fixed end O. If be small, then show that it will reach O in atime (=) gw 17. A straight smooth wire rotates in a vertical plane with uniform angular velocity » about a point O of its length. A bead can slide on the wire and initially is at rest at O with the wire horizontal. Show that, at 4 subsequent instant ¢, the bead is at a distance, from O equal to XZ sii = sii ae (sinh wt - sin wf). proximately. 18. A particle is placed at rest in a rough tube at a distance a from one end and the tube starts rotating horizontally ‘with a’ uniform angular velocity w about this end. Show that the distance of the particle at time t is ae~“™"*(cosho+sine sinh), where @ = wt sece, tan e being the coefficient of friction. 19. A smooth straight tube rotates in a horizontal plane with angular velocity w about a fixed end and a particle moves within it under a resistance equal to k times the square of the relative velocity, Prove that, if the particle be projected so as to come to rest at the fixed end, the relative velocity at a distance r from the end is fiw VOR 2-1.& via) MOTION IN A PLANE 149 20. A particle moves along a straight line fixed in a plane with a constant velocity V; while the plane itself turns uniformly round a fixed axis perpendicular to it with angular velocity w. Prove that the path of the particle is the curve Vie~= Vicos"!* sovF=e, where a is the least distance of the moving point from the axis. Show also that the accelerations along and at right angles toa perpendicular on the axis are respectively Severe) and YO VERa 21. Prove that the hodograph of a catenary described under an acceleration parallel toits axis, isa straight line described with velocity proportional to that in thecatenary. 22. If the hodograph bea circle described with constant angular velocity about a point on its circumference, then show that the path is acycloid. 23. Ifa circle be described under a constant acceleration not tending, to the centre, then prove that the hodograph is a lemniscate. 24. A bead moves on the arc of a smooth vertical circle starting from. rest at the highest point ; show that the equation to the hodograph is re Asin’ 25. The co-ordinates of a particle at time t are x = asinnt,y = 200s 2nt. Show that the equation 16x* = n’a(16x2-y*) is a possible equation for the hodograph. Answers exr i, ey se mi o 4.—sne View View! diem) diem) 7 12 2mfsinhol. 13. A log (2+¥9).CHAPTER Vill... CENTRAL ORBIT 8.1 Central forces. Let us suppose that a force F acting on a particle of mass m has the following characteristics : (_ Itis always directed towards or away from a fixed point,”"" (i) The magnitude of the force F is a function of the distance,r.of the particle from the fixed point. Such a force is called a central force and the fixed point is called the centre of force. The path described by the particle is called a central orbit. Fig-46 With the centre of force O as the pole and any fixed line OX through O as the initial line, let the polar co-ordinates of the particle P be (r, 8) at any time t. a Let f (7) be some function of r which represents the force F acting on the particle at P. If f(r) be negative, then the central force will be attractive and if f(r) be positive, then the central force is, repulsive in character. We now prove that the central orbit is a plane curve. Let F(r) be the central force per unit mass acting on a particle of mass m at P(x, y,z) and directed to the origin O of the rectangular cartesian system of axes OXYZ. Let r be the length of OP; Then the equations of motion of the particle of mass m at P are modo mE) =) dp ~~ r ve Q) +CENTRAL ORBIT 151 da? ‘ mt = met) t, ee Q) az Zz map 7 mE): sae QB) Zz PY, o Y x Fig. 47 From (2) and (3), we have az od vGieGe (dz ay) or, a a=) 0. Integrating, we get yz a7 = constant.= A (say). Similarly, from (1) and (3), we get : dx dz 2a Xp 7 constant = B (say) nd from (1) and (2), we get vit y& = constant = C (say). Then wehave Ax+By+Cz dz_ say), (pdt 8) 42 (edt y 28 = (vi -2Bl +o -<) 2 (F Yat152 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Hence the point P whose co-ordinates, are (x, y, 2) satisfy Ax + By + Cz = Oand hence must be lying on a plane. Thus the path described by the particle P is a plane curve, that is, the central orbit is a plane curve. Note. Fir), being the central force per unit mass, is the acceleration of the particle and is called the central acceleration. 8.2. Areal velocity. When a particle moves along a'plane curve, the rate of change of area traced out by the radius vector joining the particle to a fixed point is called the areal velocity of the particle, This is actually the rate of description of the sectorial area about O. ° Fig. 48 Let us consider that a particle moving along the curve APQ describe an arc PQ = és in time 6t. Let the co-ordinates of P and Q be respectively (r,@) and (r+ 6r, 0 +58) referred to O, a fixed point, as pole and OX, a fixed line, as initial line. Then the areal velocity at P is 4y (r ¥ r) sin 50 AOP 2 fee ot un ot a #Lt “ , neglecting small quantities above the first order uno 40 sire 4770, Again, let p be the length of the perpendicular from O on the straight line PQ and let v be the velocity of the particle at P.CENTRAL ORBIT 153 Then the areal velocity is BOPQ yy EPS) ae wear alte EP ae Hence twice the areal velocity = 170 = up. 8.3. Angular momentum and kinetic energy. The angular momentum of a particle moving along a plane curve about a point in the plane is the moment of its momentum about that point. If m be the mass of the particle moving with a velocity v at any instant of its motion, then the magnitude of the moment of momentum of the particle about a point (in the plane of motion) is mup, where p is the length of the perpendicular from the fixed point upon the tangent to the path of the particle at the point when its velocity is v. The sign of the moment of momentum is taken positive or negative according as the rotation of the particle about the fixed point is anti-clock-wise or clock-wise. Now, we know that the velocity » of the’particle is equivalent to the velocity “in the radial direction and 22 in the cross-radial direction. Hence another expression for moment of momentum about O, the fixed point, is mr 22.50: mr? b, at the moment of m about O being zero, The expression for kinetic energy of the particle of mass m in polar co-ordinates is given by Limo? = bri? +1209, 8.4. Motion of a particle under central force. Let us find the differential equation of the patl of a particle moving, ina plane under a force which is directed to a fixed centre.™ ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE (i) Differential equation in polar co-ordinates, Let (r, 0) be the co-ordinates of the particle P referred to the fixed centre O and the fixed initial line OX, Let F be the force per unit mass of the particle. So, if m be the mass of the particle, then mF will be the attracting force acting on it. Hence the equations of motion are m4 = 102) = = mF ee (I) and mid 20) 20, se @ Fig. 49 Integrating (2), we get r?6 = constant = h (say). Then 0 = 4 = hu, whereu= 1, thatis, r= 2. r r u Therebols HH 4() Adu | 1 du ao dt” dt Ww dt ~~ u? do dt Aide it 2 ph oh =| G) du\d0_ id Again, ™ a8) - a nig) 14? - hor nan AQ Substituting in (1) and cancelling m from both sides, we get au a cyt. cc hw do? Ww E or, tue ' oot OD a rat which is the differential equation of the path, F being the force per unit mass.CENTRAL ORBIT 155 (ii) Differential equation in pedal co-ordinates. Let p> be the length of the perpendicular from the fixed centre of force upon the tangent to the path at P whose polar co-ordinates are (7,0). Then we have 1a + 2 4 ee ee Differentiating (6) with respect tor, we have 2. dp 5, du dO, du du do p> dr dQ dr *~d0d0? dr = de dO, , du) du dul do dr|“* ao?) ~ “adr \“* ao? 2 d> Ale 3) = Fama from 6) Therefore This is the differential equation of the central orbit. Cor. We know that 2 (areal velocity) = r?6. Again, ina central orbit we see that= r?6 = constant = h. Thus in a central orbit areal velocity, that is, the rate of description of sectorial area is constant and is equal to Sh and the angular momentum remains constant throughout its motion. Furthermore, 0 = - . x which shows that the angular velocity of the particle varies inversely as the square of the distance. Also we have r?0 = vp = h. Wn ‘du)" Terie oh = Bm tofu (le) Thus the linear’ velocity’ of the ‘particle waries inversely as the perpendicular drawn from the centre of force upon the tangent to the path.186 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Note, Equations (5) and (7) are used in determining the orbit for a given law of central force or vice-versa. To determine the time, we use the formula # = 7 f 1440, from 128 = h. 8.5. Law of force for an elliptic orbit. The equation of an ellipse with focus as pole is 1 a setine, e = hu) 34 202u) = 5+} This gives the acceleration. To find the velocity, we apply the relation o-oo a0 he 8g 3a2rt ert = Feat 430% ord, This gives the velocity. : (b) Here we have p* 1, Therefore 5 = 1. pace Differentiating with respect to r, we get Therefore Thus Ex. 2. A particle describes a central orbit r* = a" cos nO under a force directed towards the pole. Find the law of force. Find further the velocity at any position. Here wehave a"u"cosn@ = 1. . @ Taking logarithm, we get nloga +n log u+logcosn0 = 0. Differentiating with respect to 0, we have ndu | n sin n@ ud0 ~ " cosnd or, Ho wtannd 2 1 nad ane nO = wtan? 1 ¢ mu sect 70. Therefore a0160 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Therefore u = u(1+tan?n6)+nu sec? nO = (n+ 1) usec? ng du at = (n#1)a% u2**!, from (1). Hence Fe hw (Bis) (eerie « SAREE, yaned Thus Fesk: Alternatively : Taking logarithmic differentiation of 1" = a" 0s n8, ee ndr we get aig 7 ~mtannd, Thus we have cot @ = -tann0, where ¢ is the angle between the tangent and the radius vector. Thus coto = cot (x + 70), Hence = intnd. Further we have, foracurve, p = rsing. Hence p= rsing m+) = rcosn@ = aS, from (2). Hence Bement: © he (not Therefore F = ue: wasn 0s - Hees ele : ; Hence Faas: IF be positive, the nature of the force is attractive, otherwise the force is t repulsive in nature. To find the velocity v at any distance r, we have : von feo(| = h? (u2+u? tan? nO) © hu? sec? nO = h2u2ay™ = a hy??? This gives the velocity at any distance r. fCENTRAL ORBIT 161 A few particular cases : (0 If we put in (2), n « ~4, so that the curve is -4 4 FP wa bcos (-10) 1 or, 2 ww mello costo a or, eaiie 2a a " Tecos0’ which isa parabola with the pole at the focus. Here F = }h7a“u!*?, putting n= -hin(3) fe a si 4+ Therefore Fe (ii) Ifwe put in (2), = 1, so that the curve is r= acos*t9 - fa (1 +08 8), which is a cardioide. | Here F = ae ul, from »(3). Therefore, F « 4. . r (iu) If @ 1, then the equation of the curve isr = a cos 0, which is a circle with the pole on the circumference. Hence F = 2h*a*u', from (3) a3 r = Ua Therefore F « 4. ,162 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE ~ (io) Wn @ 2 than the equation ofthe curve is rin: hte i Temniscate of Bernoulli. prtbinty aoe Here F = ae, from (3) 1 = et i Therefore F = 5+ {e) If = -2, then the equation of the curve is a?.= r? cos 20, which | rectangular hyperbola, the centre ah the pole: 3 Here F = -h? «ut Kn whichis negative. Therefore F & r, reve oben welt cttw cilia ‘The force is thus repulsive in nature andacts away from the centre. + Ex.3. A particle moves with a central acceleration + distance? Find the path. “ Here the acceleration varies inversely asthe cube of the distance. Hence the differential equation of the path of the particleis.~ oe dtu F 1 ‘ Sat 8 pe tgigh tes ea a eae on Sr (f- 1) ity Nowe thaee cases ae tobe considered according as bY uh? = pand Hse SS = Curt Bi2< pte (fi-1) postive and esata teat ‘The equation then becomes , , whose general solution is = Ae 4 Benn: ¢ A and B being arbitrary constants. ‘This is a spiral curve having an infinite suicnbey oheafevoftiin sbork ie H pole. If, in particular, any one of the constants A and B vanishes, then thecurve is an equiangular spiral. 4 t obyettCENTRAL ORBIT 163 Case Il. If h® = jt, then the equation (1) becomes is an? whose general solution is u = AO+B which, in general, represents a reciprocal spiral. If, in particular, A = 0, it represents a circle. Case Ill If h? > 4, 80 that i }) is negative and is equal to ( - n?) (say), then the equation (1) becomes a £8 ated whose general solution is u = 60s (n0 + €), where A and e are arbitrary constants. Ex. 4. If the central orbit be an ellipse, the focus being the centre of force, then prove that the time average of reciprocal distance Af@ lL 1f2-4 Deduce further that the time average of the square of the speed Af ng ek. 1foraet The integrals are evaluated for complete revolution. We have, for a complete revolution, sft- (Over the curve Over the curve Over the curve an cl 140 h 0 1+ecos® + for the ellipse + = 1+ecos@ Afni Ide ts encoee | Trecos0 ” i Vize™ T+ecos 6}. ; at164 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE a aire as. 2.2. shed. i iS# 7 et) Dna ~ @ Again, for a complete revolution, toh at Ceaat if vat -if “ a e eee ~ ff 4)-26 fa) xcompte rin | at | Bt oe Ex. 5. If the central orbit be an ellipse under a force towards the centre, then find the law of force. Find also the velocity at any point of the orbit. The equation of the ellipse with the centre as pole is ab? une vee () Differentiating with respect to r, we get ae oo Therefore F = 5 2. is wr (ay), where A? = ya? Hence Far. — Further, 0? -H Hates from (1) = ple? +b?-r?) = pCD? where CD is the semi-conjugate diameter of the ellipse to. CP’ and CP « 1, C being the centre of the ellipse. Ex. 6. Prove that the curver = a(1 +46 cos 0) is a central orbit about the origin for acceleration proportional to (rt ehar), We take logarithmic differentiation of the equatidn of the given curve as Tar | ~} sine 1d” 1+1Veeos0 ~ *CENTRAL ORBIT 165 2 sin? zsin’ 0 fo a Vo Therefore cosec?@ = 1+ cot?» 1+ We cont bcos? From the equation of the curve, we have 2, _ 1+V¥6 cos +3 Thus cosec? @ = ——G—+# a? The pedal equation is thus given by p= r*sin? 6 P Differentiating with respect tor, we get _2 a s(F 4a), 11 3, a(4ia o 4e4 = £(5+4}- c= bows = £(Se4) P dr 7 2 r a | 2 Hence Fe Ee htalr-*e dar), pdr 3 Therefore the acceleration is proportional to (r“* + $ar~ Examples VIII (A) 1. A particle describes a curve whose equation is r = asec?16 under a force to the pole. Show that the force varies inversely as the square of the distance. 3 2. Ifthe curve = 1 +cos 30 be described by a central force, then show that the force, directed to the pole, is constant. 3. A particle describes a curve whose equation ist = @+bunder 2 force to the pole. Find the law of force. 4. A particle describes an equiangular spiral, whose pedal equation is p = rsina, under a force to the pole. Show that the force varies inversely as r?,166 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS ; PARTICLE 5. If the orbit be a circle under a force to a point on the circumference, then show that the force varies inversely as r°; Sho further that the velocity at any point of the orbit varies inversely as | Pedal equation of a circle is r? = 2ap. } 6. If the orbit of a particle be r* = A cos nO + B sin n0, then show that it moves under a central force varying inversely as r™**?, 7 [ The equation of the curve can be put asr” = Ccos (0 ~ a). } 7. In an orbit, described under a force toa centre, the velocity atany point is inversely proportional to the distance of the point from the centre of force. Show that the path is an equiangular spiral. 8. For the orbitr = asin nO described under a central force F, 3(2atn? nT show that Few(4" -2="). r r 9. If the central force varies inversely as the square of the distance from a fixed point, then show that the orbit is a conic with focus at the pole. 10. If the central force varies as the distance from a fixed point, then show that the orbit is a conic with centre at the pole. 11. Find the law of force in the following cases : orbit is an ellipse under a force to the focus. (#) orbit is a parabola under a force to the focus. Gia) orbit is the equiangular spiralr = ae*** under a force to the pole. (i) orbits given by r? = a? sin 20 under a force to the pole, (x) orbit is given by r* = a4cos40 under a force to the pole (vi) orbit isr? = 2ap under a force to the pole. wy . eo Beano ad (vit) orbit is pe = aut 1 under a force to the pole, | si 12. A particle describes the curves OF ied au = e”, n0, cosh n@, sinh nO under a force F to the pole. Show that in each case F « But ifthe curve beau = tanh, then show that F& >Ex VIIA) CENTRAL ORBIT 167 13. A particle describes the curve r? = a? cos? 0 +b? sin? 6 under an attraction to the origin. Prove that the attraction at a distance r is h? [2 (a? + b2) 7? = 34°} 777, 14. A particle of unit mass describes an equiangular spiral of angle a, under a force which is always in a direction perpendicular to the straight line joining the particle to the pole of the spiral. Show that the force is pr?**"*-? and that the rate of description of the sectorial area about the pole is! Va sinacosa r*, [ Equiangular spiral isr = ae°™*. Equations of motion are #-rd? = 0, 24(26) =F. 15. Show that the only law for a central acceleration for which the velocity in a circle at any distance is equal to the velocity acquired in falling from infinity to that distance, is that of the inverse cube. [ If u be the velocity for circular orbit, then 2 = Fr, where F is the central acceleration. If» be the velocity in falling from infinity, then do? = -fFdr, Use w= v.] 16. A particle moves ina curve under a central attraction so that its velocity at any point is equal to that in a circle at the same distance- under the same attraction. Show that the law of force is that of the inverse cube and that the path is an equiangular spiral. 2 a a Here v? = Fr. Therefore = =F eH 2 eA. r piar” pt Answers 3, po rsa) ar M1. (i) Far? (ji) Fart. (ii) Far. (iv) Per. (v) Far. (i) Bar. (vil) For.168 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS: PARTICLE 8.8, Velocity under central forces. ghee (i) Velocity in a circle. eae If 0 be the velocity of a particle in a circle at a ee rf centre of force moving under a central force F, then v Fee r or, ov? = Fr. (ii) Velocity from infinity. Ula particle falls from infinity unde? tna ttinet aad 0 distance from the centre of force is r, then to? = -fFdr ti) Thus the velocity from infinity at any point of the central orbit means the velocity that a particle would acquire if it be moved from infinity to that point under the action of the given attractive force associated with the orbit. If, in particular, F = 4 then we have r =-2f Bar B - v= -2f Kar = 2! Let m be the mass of the moving particle. Multiplying (2) by m and supposing that the velocity changes from v, to v2 as r changes from ry to m2, we have n Smo —1 mo? = -f Par. " Thus the change in kinetic energy is equal to the work done by the ; force as the particle moves from one position to another. (iid) Velocity of fall to the paint of projection. If a particle falls from the centre of repulsion under a force F toa point at a distance r, then we have bot ef ra ; Peep ennnse eeennnnnnnenyCENTRAL ORBIT 169 8.9. Apses. Anapse isa point ona central orbit at which the radius vector drawn from the centre of force is a maximum or a minimum. The length of the radius vector corresponding to such a point is known as the upsidal distance. Now, when the radius vector is a maximum or a minimum then : (- *) will be a minimum or a maximum. The condition for that is r du, do and the first differential coefficient of u, that does not vanish, is of an even order. Ifp be the length of the perpendicular from the centre of force upon the tangent at a point P on the central orbit whose polar co-ordinates are (r, 0) referred to the centre as the pole, then 1 oa, (du), A ute (He). Now, at an apse, where «is a maximum or a minimum, 0 1 Therefore 7 sus a or, per. Hence at the point P, the angle between the radius vector and the tangent to the curve being a right angle, the particle moves at right angles to the radius vector at an apse. Thus an apse may also be defined to be a point on the orbit such that the radius vector to the point is perpendicular to the tangent at the point. The straight line joining the centre of force and the apse is called an apse line and the length of the radius vector through the apse is called the apsidal distance. The angle between two apsidal distances is called an apsidal angle.170 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS ; PARTICLE In the case of a planet moving round the sun in dn ellipse, the ends of the major axis are the two apses, the one nearer to the sun is called perthelion and the further one is called aphelion. 8.10. Property of the apse line. If the central acceleration F be a single valued function of the distance, then every apse line divides the orbit into two equal and symmetrical portions and thus there can only be two apsidal distances. Since F is a single valued function of r, the acceleration F is same at the same distance. The differential equation of the central orbit is du a fe aor Multiplying both sides by 24 and integrating, we get ; v= fe) ve) «2f Loder; whore Cia consant : Atan apse, i = 0. Hence the above equation becomes v2 = C-2f Fdr, a apex CO) since , ore 1. : u Since F is a single valued function of r, (1) shows that the velocity is same at same distance r and does not depend on the direction of motion. The acceleration F is also same at same distance r. Thus, if the direction of velocity be reversed at an apse, then it will trace a symmetrical orbit on the other side of the apsidal distance. When the particle arrives at the second apse, the path is symmetrical about the second apsidal distance for the same reason. But this is possible only if the next, that is, the third apsidal distance be equal to the one before it, that is, the first. Hence there are only two apsidal distances.CENTRAL ORBIT 171 8.11. Hodograph of the central orbit. The hodograph of a central orbit is a reciprocal of the orbit with respect to the centre of force turned through a right angle about the centre of force. Let P bea point on the central orbit, the centre of force being at S. vis the velocity of P and p = SY is the perpendicular from 5 on the tangent at P. Fig, 50 We produce SY toa point P’ such that SY. SP’ = constant = k? (say). Then the locus of P’ is the reciprocal of the path of P. We know that in a central orbit vp = h = h hom or, vSY = h, giving v = Zp = aS? ke ke Thus SP’ = 4--v = 4>+ (velocity of P). Thus we see that SP’ is proportional to the velocity at the point P- and also it is perpendicular to the velocity at P. Hence the hodograph of P is the locus of P’ turned through a right angle about S. : Cor. We have SP’ = Ee. (velocity of P ), that is, radius vector of P’ is proportional tq the velocity of P, that is, velocity at P’ is proportional to the acceleration of P, that is, velocity at P’ is (k?/h) . acceleration at P.8.12. Illustrative Examples.) 9) Ex. 1. Find the lavo of force to the pole when the path is the: 7 = a(1 ~cos 0) und prove that if F be the force at the apse und © velocity, then 30? = 4aF, x jecaea 4 i ad AE We have the path in polar co-ordinates as: r= a(1 = cos 0): 9 Taking logarithmic differentiation, we get ‘ rae 2sin$0cos} 0 14 1 sing ; rao ~ 1-cos0 2sin?10 Therefore cot ¢ = cot 10+ Hence @- fo Putting in the equation p = rsing,we have ~~ 8 7 persing VE, since r= a(1-cos 0). Squaring, we have lap? = r?. Differentiating with respect to r, we get ap 2 = 37 37h? 2 dp _ h? 31? a4 Therefore Fes Bn dap apt ae Hence the force varies as r~*, tt Atan apse, 4 =0. From the given equation of the curve, « = 0 gives sin@ = 0. Hence @ = 0 or x. But @ = 0 givesr = Owhich isa cusp. Thus @ = xis an apse. Hence, at anapse,@ = x ang r= 22 =p. Therefore ht = dav. Hence F = 3a. (2av)? This gives 30? = 4aP.CENTRAL ORBIT ” Ex. 2. A particle moves under a central repulsive force my + (distance)? and ts projected from an apse at a distance a with a velocity V, Show that the equation to the path is cos pO = aand the angle described in time t is dian (EY aViey T. H.1992 pan” (rt) hee pt = { } The differential equation of the path is 7 i au : ot, Sie “(r) Again, we haveh = up Va ; for, at anapse,r = p =a. 2, Therefore ot = -( aa) = -p'u (given). The general solution of this equation is 4 = Acos pO +B sin pO, where A and B are arbitrary constants. Initially, u = 2 when @ = 0 and & = 0 when@ » O at anapse. Hence A = 1 a and o- [Fl ~ [-Apsin pO + Bp cos pO), = Bp!’ do 25 Therefore B= 0. Hence = 400s 70 or, cos p0 = a. To findt,weuse r?0=h = aV VV oo 99 lw He dt” W sec? po ” a ° Yio f sec? pao = 1 tanpo. or, ae finn penm4 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Therefore tan pO = my on, o = tant ( '} ? . Ex. 3. A particle moving under a constant force from the centre is projected in a direction perpendicular to the radius vector with the velocity acquired in falling to the point of projection from the centre. Show that the path is : | () = cos? 30, (CH. 1982) || | The force is constant = F (say). & The differential equation of the path is then F au F aoe aT If © be the velocity of projection at a distance a from the centre, then f F dr = Fa, since F is constant. { 0 Therefore h? « v%q? = 2Fa?. au Hence ites Integrating, we get 2 (i) ture tic where C is a constant. \d0 au Initially, when u = 4 « = 0 atanapse. Hence C = 0. Substituting for C, we have (duy 2 de au i) or, or, 2 d=CENTRAL ORBIT 73 Let a°u* = cos%, sothatew = cos’? 9 and adus= ~}cos"'? o sing do. Thus 2 do Vise : sa Eahe sin or, doe hdd. Integrating, we get @ = 30, since @ and 0 vanish together. Hence au? = cos?20 a? or, () = cos? 30, This is the equation of the path. Ex. 4. A particle is projected from an apse at a distance c with a velocity V5u c?. The force to the centre being (r° - cr), find the path. [C.H. 1983} The central force is Here h = up = cVE qc, since atan apse p = cand v = VEyc?. 3 Therefore fem The differential equation of the path is du 1 seu ee dot Hal? u ® Initially,when @ = 0, «= 4 and “ = 0 atanapse. é 40 Multiplying (1) by 2% ig and integrating, we get duy 3 (2) 208 (a) tule ae arta, where A is a constant. Using the initial conditions, we have” ©" + 1_ 3c ¢ — £-3(e aoa Hence1% ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE 2 dw 1 gntiad or, (és) oan ' o Setuta2tit iT) (in etutyaetut-1) 2eFu® a0 9A VEc'u? du <2 do, Va=etuQQ0" ut = 1) To integrate this, we put x? © 1-ctu* ee sothat 2xdx = -4e4u’du. ‘Thus the integral is 4 ade = ade. [2x Integrating, we get sin“ (Vx) = ; 20+B, where B isa constant. 1/2. oo Seeecsey wd Initially, when = 0, p = r= c= + Therefore cu = 1 and x » 0, so that B’= 0. + Substituting for B, we get si worse vain) =, sin 20- or, 2Ar*-c') = 4r* sin? cos?6 « ty)? ct = 2x4}, since x + rcos 0, y = rsind on xt yte This is the path. : Ex. 5, Ifa particle be projected from an apse at a distance with a velocity — {from infinity under the action of a central force wr°¥-?, then prove that the path is r" = a" cos nO. : Inthis case F = r-2"-? = yu2"*?, ‘The differential equation of the is d, at" “7a weet ~~CENTRAL ORBIT 17 Muktiplying both sides by 2 “ and integrating, we get 2 dw a (3s) we aagunnea where A is a constant. If V be the velocity from infinity at the apse r = a, then itis given by « : Therefore a? V? = h? (at anapse) = vie hk. (n+1)a™ To find the constant A, we substitute the initial values at the apse, that is, when uw = 4 48.9 and 4? = HB 40 (n41)a™ {his givesA = 0. dea a oa Therefore eee Mis gives Sapte fa bs or, -f rg, since u = 4. fa™ 7 Therefore gcost = 044, abeing a constant or, r* = a" c0s(n0 + na). If we measure @ from the apse line thenr = a, when = 0. Hence a = 0. Thus the path is r" = a" cos n0. Ex. 6. A particle of mass m is attached toa fixed point by an elastic string @ratural length a, the coefficient of elasticity being nmg. It is projected from apse at a distance a with a velocity + Show that the other apsidal istance is given by the equation m?(r~a) - 2pha(r +a) @ 0. 127% ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE Tension towards the fixed point is = ang T=. Then the central force per unit mass will be given by *S(r-a) = 028, where u 3 ‘The differential equation of the path is Be aie) = 3. 2-84 where we write k forh (d?w ng 1-au oe, w (Giee) ee Themis ot (fe) on} = frtettan = 3S (Ea) +A Abeinga constant But apgh = Hn Rate, Therefore k? = 2a? phg and A = 2pgh-nga. nee 8] 28) When £4 becomes zero again, we have wie 2 BoB or, Baath 2 oar?) 69h na or, 2pa?h = 2-1? ar~ 1?) + 2phr? — nar* oF, ph (a?= 1) © 21? (a-r)? or, 2phala+r) = -n.1* (a-r).CENTRAL ORBIT 179 Hence nr? (r =a) = 2pha(a ¢ r) = 0. The other apsidal distance is given by this equation. Ex. 7. A_ particle moves with a central acceleration w(3u? + a*u*) being projected from a distance a at an angle of 45° with a velocity equal to that in a circle at the same distance, Prove that the time to the centre of force is a? n te (-3) It is given that the velocity of projection of the particle at any distance is equal to the velocity in a circle at the same distance. Let this velocity be V. ve Hence ae normal acceleration = 4 Therefore V? « * giving V = we. The differential equation of the central orbit is 2, Syg? ohtue eis for the given acceleration. Multiplying both sides by2 and integrating, we get . 2 tye 2o 42 f(44) 52] 2 (32, atu » {Gs} +} a (r+ a) @) where A is a constant. 2 2 . 1 1 1 (ds du’ “ Again, we know that = “+74 (45 - 0+) and p = rsing. Initially, py) = a sin45’, since r= a and ¢=45° = a/V2. du 1 2 initi: 3 | = ==: Therefore,initially, w + (a) wa 2 a 1, (du 2 ae Sownen 4 = (iG) ru? = % and o-v-M gy 4p 2? 3 Therefore + 4° ah + A, from (1) and (2). Thus h? = 24 and A= 4. a180 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE : Hence (1) becomes 2{() vat) ase et ve ®) or, Ex.8. A particle describes an equiangular spiral about a centre of force at the pole. Show that its hodograph is also an equiangular spiral. Equation of an equiangular spiral is r = ae°™* ass (i) Differentiating logarithmically, we get 14 = cota or, cot@ = cota. Therefore = a. ss Q) Hence y= 049-040. nn)CENTRAL ORBIT 181 Again we have p © raing = rsina = ne" sin = asina¢¥- sete, Therefore p= s = asina.e@-ser4, From the above relation connecting » and y and for the motion of the Particle, hodograph will be obtained by putting » = 7 and y = 0. Therefore the hodograph is a = asina.c°-o* or, re. —_— 5: asina,e@-vo%« Bs oat on "" gsina.e ee which is an equiangular spiral. Examples VIII (B) 1. A particle moves with a central acceleration which varies inversely as the cube of the distance. If it be Projected from an apse at a distance a from the origin with a velocity which is V2 times the velocity for a circle of radius a, then show that the equation of the path is cos =a. were 2. A particle of mass m moves under a central attractive force mu (5r->+ 8c? r-*) and is projected from an apse at a distance c with velocity 2H. Prove that the orbitisr = c¢os2 0, Show further that it 7 . se nc will arrive at the origin after a time an (CH. 1994) 3. A particle of mass m moves under a central force my {3au‘ -2(a?-b?)u5}, a>b, It is projected from an apse at a distance (a+b) with a velocity V4 a+b), Show that the path is r= a +b cos Oe182, ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE 4. A particle moving with a central acceleration 1 (18a7u° - 8u?) starts from a point at a distance a from the origin in a direction perpendicular to the radius vector and with the velocity from infinity. Show that the equation of the pathisr = a cos 30. 5. A particle is projected at right angles at a distance a under a central force w/r* with the g velocity from infinity. Show that the orbit is r? ea? cost 2 39 6. A particle is acted on by a central repulsive force which varies as the n-th power of the distance. If the velocity at any point of the path bé equal to that which would be acquired in falling from the centre to the point, then show that the path is ies r® cos} (n+3)0 = a constant. ” 7. A particle moves with a central acceleration le being ") projected from an apse at a distance a with a velocity 2Vp1 a. Prove that it describes the curve r? (2 +.cos V38) = 3a*. 8. A particle subjected to a central force per unit of mass equal to 1 {(2(a? + b?) uw? - 3a7b*u”} is projected at a distance a with a velocity Y® in a direction at right angles to the initial distance. Show that the 7 | path of the particle isr? = a*cos?@ +b? sin? 0. [ B. H. 1986 | 9. A particle moving under a central acceleration 4 is projected from an apse at a distance a with a velocity V. Show that the path is Vasa?V? VeViop reosh “EXSY 9 2 a, ot, revs VeV=Ho =a according as V is < or > the velocity from infinity. 10. A particle subjected to the central acceleration (6 +) is projected from an apse at a ‘distance a with a velocity + Vp. Prove that at any subsequent time t, rea-1fe, (CH, 1981}Ex. VU (BY CENTRAL ORBIT 183 11. The velocity at any point of a central orbit is dah of what it would be fora circular orbit at the same distance. Show that the central force varies as =i and that the equation of its orbit is pin rte "=! cos (n? = 1) 0. 12. A particle P of mass m moves ona smooth horizontal table. A light string attached to P passes through a small hole in the table and an equal particle Q is suspended at this end of the string, If initially OP = a and the particle P be moving with a velocity Viag in a direction at right angles to OP, determine the extreme values-of OP during the subsequent motion and find the tension of the string atany instant. 13. A particle is projected from an apse at a distance a under the law of force # - If the velocity of projection be then show that the orbit described is r = acos 0. 14. A particle is acted on by a central force 4, (attractive) and is projected with a velocity “ atan angle 7 with its initial distance a from the centre of ferce. Show that the equation of the orbit is reac’ [B.H. 1991 } 15. A particle moves witha central acceleration (yu? + yu?) and the velocity of projection at a distance R is:V. Show that the particle will ultimately go off to infinity, if V? > 22 4 2 [ The particle goes to infinity, ifu = 0.] 16. A particle moves with a central acceleration 1 (u°- 4a? u7); itis projected at a distance a with a velocity 3 V7 times the velocity for a circle at that distance and atan inclination tan~' $ to the radius vector. Show that its path is the curve134 ADVANCED ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS : PARTICLE 17. A particle of mass m moves under a force my(31r~ + 2a?y being projected ata distancer = a with a velocity V5j/a ina direction making an angle tan with the radius vector. Show that the equation of the path is re atan(f * 4} 4 18. A particle moves with a central acceleration {u + (distance), and is projected from an apse at a distance a with velocity equal ton times that which would be acquired in falling from infinity. Show that | the other apsidal distance is a/Vn™-T. If n = 1 and the particle be” projected in any direction, then show that the path is a circle Passing through the centre of force. 19. A particle moves under a central force m A (3a°u‘ + Baz) and is Projected from an apse at a distance a from the centre of force witha z velocity VTOX. Show that the second apsidal distance is half the first and that the equation to the path is ars «( sech 7} 20. A particle under a central acceleration 1/r’ is projected from a Point ata distance a with a velocity from infinity at an angle a with the initial line. Prove that the time of arriving at the centre of force is ‘ b (3) sec? $+ where Vis the velocity of projection: 21. If the path be an ellipse described under a force to the centre, _ then show that the hodograph is a similar ellipse. 22. Show that the hodograph of a circle under a force toa point on the circumference is a parabola. 7 23. A circle is described under a force to an internal point, that the hodograph of motion is an ellipse. 7 24. Ifa particle describes a lemniscate r? = a? cos 20, under a force to its pole, then show that the equation to the hodograph is t Answers 2 rea, YZ41,, T+ Q+5) 8 4 r