Lab No: 2

Title: Developing a mathematical equation for investigating Impact energy

of a specimen and conducting Charpy impact test

Objectives:
• To understand the working of Impact tester.
• To Differentiate between Charpy and Izod impact test.
• To develop a mathematical model for calculation of impact energy.
• To Study effect of variables on impact energy.

Definition:
Toughness means being strong and durable, either for a material or a person. It's
the ability to handle and absorb force or pressure without breaking or failing. The tougher
something is, the more energy it can handle before giving in or breaking.

Toughness:
Toughness is a significant property in materials science that indicates a material's
capability to withstand fractures when exposed to sudden loads or impacts. Toughness depends on
various factors such as the material's microstructure, strength, ductility, and fracture toughness. A
material that has toughness can absorb energy, undergo plastic deformation, and resist breaking.

In terms of human behavior, toughness is linked with mental and emotional strength. A
person who has toughness can handle difficult situations, overcome challenges, and recover
from setbacks. Mental toughness is a valuable trait in several fields such as sports, business,
and the military.
Overall, toughness is a crucial quality that applies to both materials and individuals. It allows
them to endure harsh conditions, absorb and dissipate energy, and remain resilient in the face
of adversity.

Impact Test:
An impact test is a common way to measure the toughness of a material. It
involves striking a material with a heavy object or a hammer to simulate sudden loading or
impact. The amount of energy required to cause the material to fracture is measured and used
to determine the material's toughness. The test is conducted under controlled conditions, and
the results are often used to assess the suitability of a material for a specific application.

The impact test is an important tool for evaluating the toughness of materials, especially
those that are expected to withstand sudden loads or impacts, such as metals used in
construction, automotive parts, and machinery. The results of the test can help engineers and
designers to select the most appropriate materials for a particular application and ensure that
the products are safe and reliable.
Introduction:
The i mpact test is a way to measure the str ength and toughness of
a material by striking it with a hammer or heavy object. It's commonly used in
quality contr ol and to assess a material's ability to r esist fractures. The test is
simpl e to set up and easy to perform, maki ng it ideal for both educational and
practical pur poses. The test i nvolves usi ng undersized material sampl es with
differ ent notch shapes and di mensi ons that meet internati onal standar ds.
Impact str ength is calculated usi ng a formula that consi ders the a mount of force
required to break the sample.

Impact Energy = mgH – mgh

Fig 4.1 : Charpy impact tester

Where
m = mass of pendulum
g = acceleration due to gravity
H= maximum height of pendulum before releasing
H= height after striking

There are two methods of impact test these are:

1. Charpy test
2. Izod test

Izod test
The primary contrast between the Charpy and Izod tests is where the specimen is positioned
on the anvil. In the Charpy test, the specimen is placed horizontally across the support, with
the notch facing away from the pendulum. In contrast, the Izod test places the specimen
vertically across the support, with the notch facing towards the pendulum. Common notch types
used in the Charpy test include V-notch, U-notch, and keyhole notch..
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Toughness =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
In impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from a
heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of resistance to impact. Impact load is
produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a height h. Release of the
weight from the height h swings the weight through the arc of a circle, which strikes the
specimen to fracture at the notch.
Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2/2, which is equal to the relative
potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the mass of the hammer
and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is Gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s 2)
and h is the height through which hammer falls. Impact velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly
less. Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops determines the
velocity and height and mass of a hammer combined determine the energy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between potential energies
is the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale. If the
scale is calibrated in energy units, marks on the scale should be drawn keeping in view angle
of fall () and angle of rise (. Height h 1 and h2 equals,
Equation:
h1= R (1-cos q) and h2= (1-cos q).

With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing energy also
increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached scale with any impact machine.
Energy used in fracturing the specimen can be obtained approximately as Wh 1-Wh2 .This
energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be measured, per unit area
at the notch.
Specimen and equipment
1. Impact testing machine.
2. Specimen and v notch is shown in the fig.4. Size of the specimen is 10mm X 10mm X
55mm

Mounting of the specimen:

Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tension side. Direction of
blow of hammer is shown in fig. (A). Direction of blow is shown in fig
Figure 4.2. Izod Impact testing equipment

Fig 4.3 Schematic impact testing

 Fig 4.4 Position of specimen for Izod test

Parts:
• Pendulum
• Protective ring
• Scale with drag pointer
• Brake
• Pendulum fixing
• Notched bar impact specimen

Fig 4.5: Charpy impact tester

Apparatus:
• Charpy impact tester.
• Cuboid shaped mild steel specimens.
• A notching device (Notch Maker).
• Anvil.

Procedure:
1. Prepare the specimen: Cut the material sample according to the specific dimensions
and notch geometry requirements as specified in the relevant testing standard .
 2. Mount the specimen: Place the specimen vertically in the clamp on the Izod machine
so that the notch is facing toward the pendulum.
3. Position the pendulum: Adjust the pendulum arm to the specified height as stated in
the testing standard.
4. Release the pendulum: Release the pendulum so that it swings down and strikes the
sample with a fixed amount of energy.
5. Record the results: Record the amount of energy absorbed by the specimen, which is
calculated based on the difference in the height of the pendulum before and after
impact.
6. Repeat the test: Repeat the test on multiple specimens to ensure accurate and
consistent results.

The Izod test is commonly used in quality control and material research applications to
assess the impact strength and toughness of materials.

1. Set the connections of Charpy impact tester with encoder and PC.
2. Perform the calibration of the Charpy impact tester and examine specimen dimensions.
3. Move the pendulum at maximum possible height and place the specimen horizontally with
notch facing away from the pendulum
4. Release the pendulum by pulling release handle.
5. The pendulum swings and strikes the specimen. Record the reading from dial and computer.
6. Retrieve the specimen from tester, and estimate the % brittleness from appearance of
fractured surface of sample.

Samples
Mathematical Derivations:
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑 𝒂 𝒃
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 = , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 =
𝑯𝒚𝒑 𝒄 𝒄
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂 𝒃
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 = , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 =
𝑯𝒚𝒑 𝒄 𝒄

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑 𝒂 𝒃
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 = , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩 =
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒃 𝒂
 Energy at Point B is EB Energy at Point A is EA
EB = mgy (3) EA=mgH
As LR = y+x1
H=LR+x
y= LR-x1 (4)
And cosα2 = x1/LR x=LR sin(α1-90o) from 2
x1 = LR cos α2
H=LR+LRsin(α1-90°)
Put value of x1 in (4)
y = LR – LR cosα2 H=LR[1+sin(α1-90°)]
y = LR (1- cosα2) (5) o
EA= mg LR [1+ sin(α1 – 90 )
ImpactPut (5) in=(3)
energy E –E
A B
EB = mg LR (1- cosα2) o
= mg LR [1+ sin(α1 – 90 ) - F L ( 1- cosα )
EB = F LR ( 1- cosα2) R 2
o
= F LR [1+ sin(α1 – 90 ) - F L ( 1- cosα )
R 2
o
= F LR + F LR sin(α 1– 90 ) - F LR + F LR cosα
2
o
Impact energy = F LR sin(α1 – 90 ) + F LR cosα
2
Using impact energy formula, reading L, F, α α and area find toughness . Compare with
1, 2
Experimental data.
Calculation:
Precautions:
• Keep yourself away from the machine during impact test.
• The specimen has to carefully place.
• When the pendulum hammer is loaded at its maximum position, make sure
that it is latched.

Virtual Lab Link

http://sm-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/#
LAB NO: 4 TASK
Data Collection and Analysis Worksheet
Energy consumed (J) Average
Temperature Impact strength
S. No Energy
(oC) S1 S2 S3 (J/cm2)
(J)
1. 25 10.5 10.9 10.1 10.5 10.5
2.
3.

Q 1. In Izod test, the specimen is kept as

n Izod test, the specimen is kept vertically on a horizontal base with the
notch facing towards the pendulum. The pendulum strikes the specimen
at the base of the notch, causing it to fracture. The energy required to
fracture the specimen is measured by the pendulum and used to calculate
the impact strength or toughness of the material.
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Q 2. Which is the test that can be measured toughness of the material?

The test that can be used to measure the toughness of a material is the impact test. In an
impact test, a sudden force or impact is applied to a specimen and the energy required to
break the specimen is measured. The amount of energy required to break the specimen is
used to determine the toughness of the material. There are several types of impact tests that
can be used to measure toughness, including the Charpy test and the Izod
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Q 3. How does tempering change the toughness of material?

__ Tempering is a heat treatment process that is often used to increase the

toughness of a material, especially after it has been hardened through quenching.
During the tempering process, the material is heated to a specific temperature and
then cooled gradually, which helps to reduce the hardness of the material and
increase its toughness.

The main mechanism by which tempering increases the toughness of a material is

through the formation of microstructural features, such as small carbide particles,
which act as obstacles to crack growth. This means that when a material is subjected
to an impact or other sudden force, the microstructural features help to prevent
cracks from propagating and ultimately lead to higher toughness.

In addition to the formation of microstructural features, tempering can also lead to a

reduction in internal stresses within the material. This can further improve the
toughness of the material by reducing the likelihood of crack initiation and
propagation.

Overall, tempering can be an effective way to improve the toughness of a material,

making it more resistant to fracture and failure under sudden impact or loading.
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Q 4. Define Notch impact strength and Modulus of rupture?

__ Notch Impact Strength: Notch impact strength is a measure of a material's ability

to withstand impact loading when a notch or a small groove is present in the
specimen. It is determined by measuring the energy required to break the material
under impact loading, with a notch introduced to the specimen to create a stress
concentration. The higher the notch impact strength, the more resistant the material
is to fracture and failure under impact loading.

Modulus of Rupture: Modulus of rupture (MOR) is a measure of the strength of a

material when it is subjected to a bending load. It is defined as the maximum stress
that a material can sustain before it fractures or breaks under a bending load. MOR is
typically determined by testing a beam or bar of the material under a three-point
bending test. A higher MOR value indicates a stronger material that can withstand
higher bending stresses without failure. The modulus of rupture is often used as an
indicator of the strength of brittle materials such as ceramics, glass, and concrete.
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Q5. Using readings from experiment find and Compare impact energy from equations
to test data.

__ To calculate the toughness of a material using the impact energy formula, we

need to have the values of the following parameters:

• F: maximum force applied to the material during impact testing

• L: distance over which the force is applied
• α1: angle of incidence of the impactor
• α2: angle of reflection of the impactor
• A: cross-sectional area of the material
• Impact energy: the energy required to break the material under impact
loading

Assuming we have these values, we can use the impact energy formula as follows:
Toughness = Impact energy / [(1/2) * F * L * (cos(α2) - cos(α1)) * A]

To compare the calculated value of toughness with experimental data, we need to

have the values of impact energy obtained from the experiment. We can compare
the calculated value of toughness with the experimental data to evaluate the
accuracy of the impact energy formula and the assumptions made in the calculation.

If the calculated value of toughness matches closely with the experimental data, it
indicates that the impact energy formula is a good predictor of material toughness
under impact loading. If the calculated value of toughness is significantly different
from the experimental data, it may indicate that the assumptions made in the
calculation are not accurate or that there are other factors that are affecting the
material's toughness under impact loading.

In summary, to compare the impact energy formula with experimental data, we need
to calculate the toughness of the material using the formula and compare it with the
impact energy obtained from the experiment. This comparison can help to validate
the accuracy of the formula and provide insight into the material's behavior under
impact loading.
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Q6. What is meant by strain energy and where it can be used?

_ Strain energy, also known as elastic potential energy, is the energy stored within a
material when it undergoes deformation due to the application of a force or stress.
When a force is applied to a material, it causes the material to deform, which results
in a strain. The strain energy is the energy stored within the material as a result of
this deformation, and it represents the work done to deform the material.
Strain energy is a useful concept in the field of mechanics and is used in various
engineering applications, including structural design, material testing, and machine
design. For example, in structural design, the strain energy of a material is an
important factor to consider when designing structures that will be subject to
external loads. By understanding the strain energy of a material, engineers can
determine the maximum load that a structure can withstand without deforming or
breaking.

Additionally, strain energy is used in material testing to determine the properties of

different materials. By measuring the amount of strain energy stored in a material
under different loads, engineers can determine the material's strength and elasticity.

In machine design, strain energy is used to design components that can store and
release energy, such as springs and shock absorbers. By understanding the strain
energy of these components, engineers can design them to have the desired
characteristics, such as a specific stiffness or damping behavior.
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Q 7: What is the impact of material on value of strain energy?

The value of strain energy stored in a material is influenced by the material's

properties, such as its elasticity, stiffness, and yield strength.

Materials with higher stiffness and yield strength will generally store more strain
energy than materials with lower stiffness and yield strength when subjected to the
same amount of deformation. This is because materials with higher stiffness and
yield strength require more work to be done to deform them, resulting in a greater
amount of strain energy being stored.

Similarly, materials with higher elasticity will store more strain energy than materials
with lower elasticity when subjected to the same amount of deformation. This is
because elastic materials can undergo more deformation before reaching their yield
point, allowing them to store more strain energy.

The impact of material on the value of strain energy is important in various

engineering applications, including designing and selecting materials for specific
applications. For example, in structural design, materials with high strain energy
storage capacity may be preferred for applications where the structure is subject to
repeated loading or impact, as they can better absorb and dissipate energy. In
contrast, materials with lower strain energy storage capacity may be preferred for
applications where stiffness and low weight are critical, such as aerospace
applications.
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Q 8: Why it is important to find strain energy of a material? What are its applications?

__ It is important to find the strain energy of a material because it provides valuable

information about the material's mechanical behavior and performance under
external loads or stresses. The strain energy can be used to determine the maximum
amount of load a structure can withstand without undergoing excessive deformation
or failure. This information is critical in many engineering applications, including
structural design, machine design, and material testing.
Some of the specific applications of strain energy include:

1. Structural design: In structural design, the strain energy can be used to

determine the maximum load a structure can withstand without undergoing
excessive deformation or failure. By understanding the strain energy of the
material, engineers can design structures that can withstand specific external
loads or stresses.
2. Material testing: Strain energy is used in material testing to determine the
properties of different materials. By measuring the amount of strain energy
stored in a material under different loads, engineers can determine the
material's strength and elasticity.
3. Machine design: Strain energy is used in machine design to design
components that can store and release energy, such as springs and shock
absorbers. By understanding the strain energy of these components,
engineers can design them to have the desired characteristics, such as a
specific stiffness or damping behavior.
4. Impact analysis: The strain energy stored in a material can also be used to
analyze the impact of external forces or loads on the material. This
information is critical in understanding the behavior of materials under impact
and designing structures or components that can withstand impact loading.

Overall, the determination of strain energy is a valuable tool in understanding the

mechanical behavior and performance of materials, and it has important applications
in various engineering fields.
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Q 9: What is the impact of area on impact energy?

_ The impact energy of an object depends on various factors, including its mass,
velocity, and the area over which the force is applied. The impact energy is directly
proportional to the area over which the force is applied.

This means that if the area over which the force is applied is increased, the impact
energy will decrease. Conversely, if the area over which the force is applied is
decreased, the impact energy will increase. This relationship can be described by the
equation:

Impact energy = Force x Distance = (Force / Area) x Distance x Area

From this equation, we can see that if the area over which the force is applied is
increased, the force per unit area will decrease, resulting in a decrease in impact
energy. On the other hand, if the area over which the force is applied is decreased,
the force per unit area will increase, resulting in an increase in impact energy.

The impact of area on impact energy is important in various engineering

applications, including the design of structures and protective equipment. For
example, in the design of body armor, a smaller area over which the force is applied
can help to distribute the impact energy over a larger area of the body, reducing the
risk of injury. Similarly, in the design of impact-resistant structures, a larger area over
which the force is applied can help to reduce the impact energy and prevent
catastrophic failure of the structure.
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