2/15/22, 4:23 PM Philippine Visual Arts During the Second Republic (1942-1945)

Cultural Center of the Philippines

 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

PHILIPPINE ART

Philippine Visual Arts During the Second

Republic (1942-1945)
When war broke out in Asia and the Pacific on 8 Dec 1941, the Philippines, like other nations affected by this major
world conflict, had to deal with drastic changes in its social, political, and economic life. Japan occupied the
Philippines primarily due to the latter’s status as an American colony and its strategic position in Southeast Asia
(Jose 1992, 11). Upon occupying the Philippines, one of the preliminary steps taken by the Japanese was to lay the
groundwork for a “cultural regeneration” centered on the development of the “consciousness of the people as
Orientals” (Tribune 1942, 1, 8). This was in line with Japan’s goal to lead all Asian nations in what was to be called
the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. This cultural regeneration called for the relinquishing of Western
influences and the rejuvenation of local and indigenous traditions. Among the fields identified by the Japanese as
vital in the implementation of its policies and propaganda were painting and photography, art objects, stage
plays, movies, song, and music (Terami-Wada 1992, 23).

In line with Japan’s recognition of art’s vital role in its campaign, a number of Filipino artists were invited to a
luncheon at the Manila Hotel on 10 Aug 1942. The luncheon was tagged by the Tribune as a “fraternal get-
together” with Japanese artists (Sunday Tribune 1942, 1). The title of the newspaper article, “Because Artists Are
Builders Too,” unabashedly pronounced the important role of art in the “reconstruction of the New Philippines.”
Invited to the luncheon were well-known Filipino artists who were known conservative leaders, such as Fernando
Amorsolo and his brother Pablo, Irineo Miranda, Dominador Castañeda, Guillermo Tolentino, and Vicente Rivera y
Mir, and modernist leaders Victorio Edades, Galo B. Ocampo, and Hernando R. Ocampo. The Japanese contingent
was represented by a motley group of artists working in different styles. At this dinner, both Filipino and Japanese
artists sketched each other’s portraits on a long vertical scroll of paper as a symbol of unity.

A number of paintings done during this period depicted themes that conformed to the programs set out by the
Japanese. Reconstruction and Rehabilitation, 1943, by Gregorio Sibug shows workers setting up the foundation
of a new house encouraging Filipinos to rise above the ashes of war and to start anew. Vicente Alvarez Dizon’s A
Day Begins, 1942, depicts a bright future in a rural scene basking in the glow of the rising sun with rays of light
radiating around the sun explicitly referring to the Japanese imperial flag. A number of works also highlighted
Filipino tradition in line with the Japanese policy of relinquishing Western mores. These works depicted Filipino
customs and virtues such as industry, family solidarity, respect for tradition, and religiosity (Pilar 1992, 151).
Examples are Fernando Amorsolo’s Laundry Women, 1943, and his harvest and fishing scenes; Marcelino Rivera’s
The Fisherman, 1944; Emilio Santiago’s Christmas Eve, 1942; and Cirilo Santiago’s Going to the Misa de Gallo,
1942. The focus on indigenous themes was also seen in works depicting native facial features and costumes such
as Study of an Aeta, 1944, by Crispin Lopez and Moro Datu, 1942, by Felix Zablan. To further instill this ideology
and to emphasize the need for reconstruction, three paintings were chosen by the Japanese for the cover of Shin
Seiki magazine in 1943. These were Francisco Reyes’s Forging Ahead (title by Santiago Pilar), 1943, Young Lady
with a Japanese Primer, 1943, by Fernando Amorsolo, and Brown Madonna, 1938, by Galo B. Ocampo (Pilar 1992,
152). Other works during this period did not explicitly refer to the new order but were merely anecdotal, capturing
scenes of everyday life during the occupation with seeming apathy. Crispin Lopez’s Baguio Market, 1943, depicted
a state of normalcy while Marcelino Sanchez’s Tales of Bataan, 1944, portrays a storyteller recounting his ordeal
to an eager crowd treated to a narrative sans emotional content.

Using art as an important conduit to reach the Filipino people, the Japanese hired well-known prewar illustrators
like Liborio “Gat” Gatbonton and Tony Velasquez to illustrate for the Japanese-sponsored papers. The 1 Oct 1941
issue of the Shin Seiki magazine featured a cartoon by Gatbonton titled Establishment of the Greater East Asia

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Co-Prosperity Sphere showing people belonging to different nations under Japanese rule working together to
build a tower. In contrast to Gatbonton’s usual polemical and inflammatory depiction of characters, the Japanese
are portrayed in this cartoon as friends and not foes. Tony Velasquez and Gatbonton also illustrated for the
Japanese-sponsored Tribune. Velasquez’s The Kalibapi Family promoted Japanese slogans and served to
educate Filipinos on the new policies implemented by the Japanese. For instance, The Kalibapi Family would
remind readers of the wisdom of traditional Filipino virtues and of substituting imported products with local ones
(Cheng Chue 2005, 81-82).

Tony Velasquez, Kalibapi Family, comics series in Tribune, 18 October 1943 (Photo from Philippine Studies Vol 53, No 1. Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 2005.)

Filipino artists also assumed key positions in Japanese-created organizations. Victorio Edades served as chief
artist of the Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (Kalibapi), an organization created by the Japanese on
4 Dec 1942 whose main task was “to bring about the reconstruction and unification of the new Philippines” and
presumably had overall control of the cultural policy in the Philippines (Jose 1992, 13). As chief artist, his job was to
paint portraits, posters, signs, and placards for conventions and stage backdrops (Pilar 1992, 150). Edades also
organized art exhibitions and competitions during his stint as chief artist. In 1943, Edades took a leave from the
Kalibapi to research on the biographies of artists in the Vargas collection, which would be published later in a
catalogue titled Paintings by Filipino Artists in the Art Collection of Jorge B. Vargas (Pilar 1992, 150). In 1944,
Edades was transferred to Malacañan and appointed as interior decorator and artist of the Board of Information
of the Philippine Republic.

Vicente Alvarez Dizon, Ambuscade, 1945, Dizon

Family Collection (Photo courtesy of Josie Dizon
Henson)

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While it may seem that many Filipino artists were acquiescent, one must remember that the peculiar conditions of
war and heavy censorship left them with little choice but to toe the line in order to survive. Santiago Pilar argued
that the points which the Japanese asserted in their campaign found expression only in the subject matter of art
(Pilar 1992, 151). Similarly, Ricardo Jose contends that many artists took the lines propagated by the Japanese “half-
heartedly … many waiting for better times, fence sitting” (1992, 15).

Writing on the state of art during the Japanese occupation, Galo B. Ocampo observed that “the chaotic political
situation and the economic instability produced an environment that could not possibly nurture cultural
development” and that “art was relegated to the theatre, artists to backdrop painters … The aesthetic turned
utilitarian” (Guillermo 2009, 65). This statement confirms the fact that as the exigencies of war reshaped
institutions and imposed restrictions on art, Filipino artists continued to produce art under conditions of duress.

Fernando Amorsolo was among the most productive of the Filipino artists. In order to survive, he accepted several
painting commissions. He produced several works for Jorge B. Vargas, among which are Harvest Scene and
Fishing Scene, 1942. He also did self-portraits, portraits of patrons, rural and market scenes, still life, and sketches
of Japanese soldiers (Foronda 1975, 27). Amorsolo also recorded for posterity historic events during the war, such
as Bombing of the Intendencia, 1942; Rizal Avenue on Fire, 1945; Ruins of the Manila Cathedral, 1945; and San
Sebastian Church through Quiapo Ruins, 1945. These works are significant given the restrictions imposed on
photographs during this period (Jose 1992, 15). Other lesser known artists, such as Siauinco de Guzman, remained
active during this period and continued to carve religious figures (Foronda 1975, 27).

Filipino patrons and connoisseurs continued to support the arts during this period. Art connoisseur Jorge B. Vargas
commissioned several paintings from his friend Amorsolo. Vargas is said to have collected around 89 works dated
1942-45 during the war years (Pilar 1992, 149). Another art collector was Aurelio Alvero who was chief of the
cultural division of the Kalibapi. Alvero acquired a substantial number of artworks during the Japanese occupation.
His collection reached 163 pieces representing 36 artists (Pilar 1992, 149). He opened his collection to the public on
4-8 Nov 1942, and there he also launched an annotated brochure of Filipino artists titled Art in Tagala. Among the
painters represented in the Alvero collection were Fernando and Pablo Amorsolo, Juan Luna, Felix Resurreccion
Hidalgo, Vicente Rivera Y Mir, Antonio Dumlao, Galo B. Ocampo, Hernando R. Ocampo, and Ricarte Puruganan
(Foronda 1975, 28-29). Alvero exhibited prewar paintings as well as works done during the war, like a painting by
Fernando Amorsolo titled Bansag Dahuyong sa Bukid (Air Raid Alarms in the Field), 1942, Ang Kasal (The
Wedding), 1942, and Puruganan’s Wedding Picture, 1942 (Foronda 1975, 29). Another private art collector was Dr
Jose Bantug who, according to Marcelino Foronda, had one of the most distinguished private collections in the
country. Although it was not open to the public, it was said to have been accessible to art historians and critics
(Foronda 1975, 29). The Bantug collection consisted of bas reliefs in wood, which were religious in subject matter
and mostly finished in polychrome. These wooden bas reliefs were said to have come from different areas in the
Philippines such as Pasig, Bataan, Iloilo, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Tarlac, Rizal, and Bulacan. Aside from private
galleries and collections, the Gallery of Arts and History of the National Library was open during the Japanese
occupation. The gallery held 150 paintings, 80 historical objects, several sculptures, and 1,500 museum objects
(Foronda 1975, 30).

Art critics were also active during this period. I.V. Mallari wrote on the need for a new building to house the
national museum (Pilar 1992, 150). Emilio Aguilar Cruz published “The Authocthonous Tradition,” which was a
stinging critique of the need for self-expression beyond the veneer of academism. Pointedly criticizing both
conservatives and modernists, Cruz stated that while young Filipino painters during the occupation had seemingly
rid themselves of conservative clichés, “many had tended to lapse into banalities of modernism to produce new
and bigger clichés and the result had been a tendency toward academism of a different mark, but academism
nevertheless” (Foronda 1975, 31).

Two major art exhibitions were held during the occupation, one in 1943 and another in 1944, both organized by
Edades. A literary and art contest was also held during the foundation day celebration of Manila in 1943 (Pilar
1992, 150). While the Japanese intended these art exhibitions to promote the new order, they unwittingly became
fora for the continuing debate between the modernists and the conservatives that first exploded in the prewar

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era. In the 29 Dec 1943 national art exhibition/competition, Amorsolo’s Cockfight Scene and Puruganan’s
Bullfight won first and second prizes, respectively. The themes clearly promoted local values as espoused by the
new Japanese government, but the event also reflected the continuing dominance of the conservatives who
bagged the major prizes. A second art exhibition/competition was held on 19 Jun 1944, toward the end of the
occupation. Edades chaired the board of judges with members Francisco B. Icasiano and Kazu Wakita. Carlos V.
Francisco took home most of the awards. Francisco’s Angelus won first prize, his Angono Fiesta bagged the
second prize, and Frugal Meal in the Farm first honorable mention (Tribune 1944, 1). Demetrio Diego won third
place for Siesta in Harvest Time. Other winners were Galo B. Ocampo for First Harvest, Bonifacio Cristobal for
Prayer, Wenceslao Garcia for Communal Cooperation, Virginia Ty for Feeding the Chicks, and Vicente
Manansala for Planting Rice. Only Wenceslao Garcia’s work was in the conservative style. The prizes were
bagged mostly by the modernists. This caused a stir among conservatives who felt that Edades used his position
as chief of the Kalibapi and head of the board of judges to manipulate the results of the competition. The public
joined this debate, sending letters to the editors of the Tribune, some siding with the conservatives and others
with the modernists (Tribune 1944).

Carved and handpainted bakya or wooden sandals, ca 1943, Nicanor G. Tiongson Collection

Since survival was the main concern during the occupation, artists eked out a living by dabbling in commercial
arts. Carlos V. Francisco (Botong) worked for film director Manuel Conde’s advertising outfit, Kiko Art, doing
billboards and other commercial arts. Aside from billboards, Botong designed and executed sets and posters for
stage plays that Conde directed and produced. He also sewed dolls and designed their costumes, which he and
Conde sold at the Life Theater (Tiongson 2008, 34). Other Filipino artists who were not working in the mainstream
also continued to use their talent in order to survive. Manuel Rodriguez Sr opened an art school in Naga and
taught drawing and painting outdoors under a nipa shelter. He was paid with whatever the people had such as
rice, chicken, and vegetables (Harding 1974, 21). It is interesting to note that art continued to thrive in the
peripheral areas and that people were willing to pay for art lessons. Perhaps art acted as a necessary catharsis,
helping people forget the harshness of war. When Rodriguez returned to Manila, he harnessed his artistic talents
to design and make coconut brooches. This business later expanded to include elaborate hand-painted wooden
fans and wooden sandals or bakya. He recounted that the bakya had become very popular due to the shortage of
raw materials such as leather and rubber for shoes and slippers. He also stated that selling bakya and native crafts
was lucrative since they appealed to the Japanese soldiers and to those who had money (Harding 1974, 25). The
designs he made for the bakya were “native scenes of nipa hut, or stacks of rice, or coconut trees intricately
carved around the heels” (Harding 1974, 25). According to Rodriguez, the stacks of rice “probably related to the
people’s wish for more rice during this time when supplies were low and substitutes were found for almost
anything” (Harding 1974, 25). Rodriguez also noted that the “first experiment in cottage industries” started during

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the occupation (Harding 1974, 26). A small group of artisans was housed in the Normal School and the group was
composed of Filipino prisoners of war who were artistic. Accordingly, the Japanese, trying to win the sympathy of
the people, allowed some of the prisoners of war to work for them making handbags, slippers, fans, belts, and
wooden sandals for which they earned a peso a day (Harding 1974, 26). Rodriguez later set up his own cottage
industry and hired artist friends selling their crafts to the government.

Despite the restrictions and difficulties experienced during the Japanese occupation, some artists found ways,
whether overt or covert, to depict the real state of the country during the occupation or to resist Japanese rule. The
somber tone of works—like Pilar M. Santiago’s Evacuees, 1941; Irineo Miranda’s Home from Work, 1944; and
Santiago Caluya’s Planting in a Thunderstorm, 1944—depicts the hardships experienced by many during the
occupation. Galo B. Ocampo did underground work for the United States Army Forces in the Far East while
Esmeraldo EZ Izon did the maps and illustrations for the underground paper The Liberator. The illustrations for
the underground papers may have been bland and unmemorable given the extreme circumstances under which
they were produced. Out of expediency and due to the lack of time and money, illustrations had to remain simple,
clear, and concise. Nevertheless, they played a vital role in disseminating information and boosting the morale of
the Filipinos. Negros’ Voice of Freedom and Tingug San Kalwasan (Voice of Liberty) had more appeal in that
they were individually colored with color pencils.

Tony Velasquez and Liborio Gatbonton did illustrations for the Japanese-sponsored Tribune. While they may have
produced works that seemed to conform to the prevailing policies, they subtly incorporated in their works
messages of subversion. While Gat’s Philosopher of the Sidewalk, 1942, presented images of normalcy depicting
the main character going to a radio station to perform, going to dances, beaches, courting ladies, and traveling,
some of his strips subtly mocked the Japanese administration over food shortage and the consequent policy of
substituting cat meat for scarcer options (Cheng Chue 2005, 82-86). Similarly, Velasquez’s The Kalibapi Family, in
certain instances, commented on the folly of substituting scarce items with local products (Cheng Chue 2005).
Cloaking their comments in humor, they were able to deflect the ire of the Japanese.

Diosdado Lorenzo, Rape and Massacre in Ermita, 1947,

National Museum of the Philippines Collection (Photo by
Kiko del Rosario)

The Japanese occupation of the Philippines ended in 1945 when the Japanese signed their unconditional surrender
to American troops who overpowered them in the Battle of Manila. As Manila lay in ruins after the battle, Filipinos
celebrated their liberation but also mourned the loss of many of their country’s cultural patrimony. Important
artworks were destroyed or obliterated, such as those in historic buildings in Intramuros, the holdings in the
National Museum, and those in the private collection of Dr Bantug. The liberation, however, allowed artists to
finally give free rein to their repressed emotions. Gatbonton came out with a comic strip called Jappy Days,

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making fun of the Japanese in the most acerbic and inflammatory tone. Examples of postwar works that depict the
brutality of the Japanese and the sufferings of the Filipinos during the war are Demetrio Diego’s Capas, 1948;
Diosdado Lorenzo’s Rape and Massacre in Ermita, 1947; Atrocities in Paco, 1947; Execution at the Cemetery,
1947; and Dominador Castañeda’s Doomed Family, 1945. The physical immediacy of these haunting images
captures the abominations of war and locates them in the realm of the imaginable. 

 Written by Helen Yu-Rivera

Sources
Cheng Chua, Karl Ian U. 2005. “The Stories They Tell: Komiks during the Japanese Occupation, 1942-1944.”
Philippine Studies 53 (1): 59-90; 77-78.

Foronda, Marcelino A. 1975. Cultural Life in the Philippines during the Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945. Manila:
Philippine National Historical Society.

Guillermo, Alice G. 2009. Diosdado Magno Lorenzo: Art Rebel to Legend. Manila: Philippine-Italian Association
and Tantoco-Rustia Foundation.

Harding, Beatrice. 1974. Survival through Art. Manila: Regal Publishing.

Jose, Ricardo T. 1992. “The Japanese Occupation and Philippine Culture: An Overview.” In Panahon ng Hapon:
Sining sa Digmaan, Digmaan sa Sining, edited by Gina Barte. Manila: Sentrong Pangkultura ng Pilipinas.

Pilar, Santiago A. 1992. “The Visual Arts (1941-1945): Orientalism and the Longer War.” In Panahon ng Hapon:
Sining sa Digmaan, Digmaan sa Sining, edited by Gina Barte, 147-59. Manila: Sentrong Pangkultura ng
Pilipinas.

Sunday Tribune. 1942. “Because Artists Are Builders Too.” 6 Aug., p. 1.

Terami-Wada, Motoe. 1992. “Strategy in Culture: Cultural Policy and Propaganda in the Philippines, 1942-1945.” In
Panahon ng Hapon: Sining sa Digmaan, Digmaan sa Sining, editedby Gina Barte, 23-33. Manila: Sentrong
Pangkultura ngPilipinas.

Tiongson, Nicanor G. 2008. The Cinema of Manuel Conde. Manila: UST Publishing House.

Tribune. 1942. “Marquis Tokugawa’s Speech.” 12 Sep, 1, 8.

———. 1944a. “Art Contest Winners Named.” 20 Jun.

———. 1944b. “Public Pulse: An Injustice.” 28 Jun, 4.

———. 1944c. “Public Pulse: Art Competition.” 25 Jun, 4.

———. 1944d. “Public Pulse: On Art Exhibition.” 27 Jun, 4.

This article is from the CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art Digital Edition.

Title: Philippine Visual Arts During the Second Republic (1942-1945)

Author/s: Helen Yu-Rivera
URL:
Publication Date: November 18, 2020

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Access Date: February 15, 2022

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