Surface Tension Measurement of Aqueous

Polymer Solutions
R. Y. Z. Hu • The surface tension of aqueous polymer solutions of polyacrylamide (PAM),
polyacrylic acid (PAA), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and hydroxyethyl
A. T. A. Wang
cellulose (HEC) was studied over a range of polymer concentrations by using
J. P. Hartnett the maximum bubble pressure method at temperatures ranging from 20 to
Energy Resources Center, 65 °C. The surface tension of water was also measured by the maximum bubble
University of Illinois at Chicago, pressure method as well as by the DuNoiiy ring method over the same
Chicago, Illinois temperature range. The experimental water data are in excellent agreement with
the well-established tabulated data in the literature.
For a fixed concentration, all of the polymer solutions exhibited a decrease in
surface tension with increasing temperature level. When compared with water
at a fixed temperature level, the PAM and CMC solutions showed slightly
higher surface tension values, whereas the PAA solutions yielded values equal
to those found for water. In the case of the HEC solutions, the measured
surface tensions decreased with concentration at a fixed temperature level and
were lower than the values found for water. For a concentration of 2000 wppm
the surface tension values for the hydroxyethyl cellulose were of the order of
10% lower than those for water at a fixed temperature level.
A comparison of the new measurements with the relatively limited previously
published studies showed good agreement.

Keywords: surface tension, aqueous polymer solutions, viscoelastic

fluids

INTRODUCTION polymer concentration was higher than 2000 wppm, Shima

Research on pool boiling of aqueous polymer solutions re-
quires knowledge of the surface tension of these fluids be-
cause surface tension influences bubble formation in the bulk
fluid as well as on the boiling surface. Although many surface
tension data have been reported for pure liquids (eg, water,
methanol), relatively few data are available on the surface
tension behavior of high molecular weight polymer solutions
[1-6].
Shima and coworkers [1-3] measured the surface tension
of several aqueous polymer solutions over a range of concen-
trations at room temperature. Although they did not indicate
their method of measurement, it is likely that they used the
capillary rise method. These authors reported that polyethy-
lene oxide (PEO) and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) aqueous
solutions had surface tension values lower than those of pure
water. For a fixed temperature, the surface tension of these
polymer solutions was found to decrease with concentration,
reaching an asymptotic value. They also reported that car-
boxymethyl cellulose (CMC) aqueous solutions had surface
tension values about the same as for water when the polymer
concentration is lower than 10,000 wppm. For polyacryl-
amide (PAM) aqueous solutions, they reported that surface
tension had about the same value as for water when the
solution concentration was lower than 2000 wppm. When the
et al [1-3] reported that the surface tension values of the
PAM solutions were lower than those for water.
Miaw [4] measured the surface tension of hydroxyethyl
cellulose and polyacrylamide solutions using the capillary rise
method and the DuNoiiy ring. He reported that his surface
tension measurements for the 500 and 1000 wppm polyacryl-
amide solutions were unstable. On the basis of these observa-
tions, he concluded that the DuNoiiy ring method was not
suitable for aqueous polymer solutions of concentrations,
greater than 500 wppm. Miaw's data showed that HEC
solutions had surface tension values lower than those of water
and PAM solutions had about the same surface tension as
water. For these two polymer solutions, he reported that the
surface tension is independent of concentration over the
temperature range of 20-70"C.
Paul [5] measured the surface tension of PAM, HEC, and
PEO solutions by the capillary rise method at room tempera-
ture. His results indicated that the HEC and PEO solutions
had surface tension values lower than that of water. Paul
reported that the PAM solutions had surface tension values
about the same as that of water.
The present study of surface tension was initiated by Hu
[6], who investigated the pool boiling behavior of aqueous
solutions of polyacrylamide and hydroxyethyl cellulose. For
these surface tension measurements the maximum bubble

Address correspondenceto Professor J. P. Hartnett, Director, Energy Resources Center, Universityof Illinoisat Chicago, P.O. Box 4348, Chicago, IL
60680-4348.
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 1991; 4:723-729
© 1991 by Elsevier Science PublishingCo., Inc., 655 Avenueof the Americas, New York, NY 10010 0894-1777/91/$3.50
723
724 R . Y . Z . Hu et al.

pressure method was used, as first suggested by Simon in PERSONAL COMPUTER

1851 [7] and later developed by Jaeger in 1917 [8] and
Cantor in 1892 [9]. Sugden [10], in 1921, developed an I
DIGITAL
apparatus that used this technique to measure the surface __h LINEARIZATION I---! TEMPERATURE
DISPLAY
tension of fluids in a laboratory setting. l I NETWORK , IDEGREESCI
The goal of this paper is to study the surface tension of DIGITAL
aqueous polymer solutions by using a new computerized ~111 PROGRAMMABLE1~1 SURFACETENSION
system [I 1] based on the maximum bubble pressure method. FILTER I I DISPLAY
(DYNES/CM)
L_
THEORY
The maximum pressure required to force a bubble from a
SENSOR
I
tube consists of two parts: (1) the hydrostatic pressure re- I
quired to hold a flat liquid-air surface at the lowest point of DIFFERENTIALI I
the tube and (2) the extra pressure arising from the action of
surface tension at the curved surface that exits at this depth
below the free surface. It is known that the pressure inside a
liquid drop due to the surface tension decreases as the radius
A~
GASFLOW
PRESSURE
TRANSIUCERI I
GASFLOW
FLOW
CONTROLLER]

PRESSURE
I
[
I
I
of curvature of the bubble increases. Therefore it was conjec- ~. METERING CONTROLLER ]
tured that the maximum pressure P occurred when the VALVES
bubble formed a hemisphere of the same radius r as that of I
the tube. Thus the original equation was
SMALL

P = pgL + 2a/r (1)
where p is the density difference between the two fluids, L is
the hydrostatic height to the bottom of the bubble, and (7 is
the surface tension.
Assuming that Eq. (1) is correct, if two tubes of different
diameters having the same hydrostatic height h were placed
in a fluid, then the difference in the maximum pressures,
PI - P2, would be given by the equation
P1 - P2 = 2 o ( 1 / Q - l/r2) (2)
or
a = (P,- P2)/[2(1/r,- l/r2) ] (2a)
Accordingly, a measurement of the difference of the maxi-
mum pressures along with the knowledge of the tube radii
yields the surface tension. This is the basic principle of the
maximum bubble pressure method.
Equation (1) is not precise because it assumes that the
radius of curvature of the bubble is equal to that of the tube,
that is, the bubble is a perfect hemisphere. Actually, the
shape of the bubble departing from a tube is not hemispheri-
cal. Bashforth and Adams [12] and Sugden [10] provide a
detailed analysis that takes this into account. In the current
experiments the departure from Eq. (2a) is negligible.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
AND PROCEDURE
Experimental A p p a r a t u s
The surface tension of the polymer solutions, using deionized
water as the solvent, was measured by a SensaDyne 6000
surface tensiometer (CSC Scientific Company, Fairfax, VA)
[11]. A complete description of this system, which utilizes
the maximum bubble pressure method as outlined above, can
be found in U.S. patent No. 4,446,148, which covers the
original SensaDyne technology.
Figure 1 presents a schematic diagram of the surface
tensiometer system. A pair of hollow glass tubes (or probes)
with orifices of different diameters are positioned at the same
distance below the surface of the liquid. Nitrogen gas is
supplied to the tubes at a constant-volume flow rate, causing
bubbles to be formed in the liquid. A constant-differential
1
ORIFICE~ -- ~ LARGE INERT
ORIFICE GAS/AIR
PROBE SUPPLY
TANK
TEMP.PROBE
Figure 1. Block diagram of surface tensiometer.
flow controller is used in conjunction with a low-flow mi-
crometering valve to make the gas flow independent of the
downstream pressure. Therefore, changes in back pressure at
the orifices due to changing pressure conditions or fluid level
will not substantially affect the gas flow rate or the bubble
formation rate. Separate metering valves at each orifice con-
trol the bubble frequency and the bubble formation rate ratio
of the large to small orifice.
The tensiometer also interfaces directly with a personal
computer and uses a menu-driven diskette program that al-
lows display, storage, retrieval, and graphing of data. An
automatic calibration program is provided for the system
pressure transducer calibration by using well-established sur-
face tension data for distilled water and methanol.
This SensaDyne tensiometer has a limitation on the solu-
tion viscosity. Solutions having a viscosity higher than 1000
cP cannot be measured by this system owing to the influence
of pressure on the gas flow rate of the bubble formation rate
caused by the high viscosity.
The test container used is a liquid-jacketed borosilicate
glass beaker with a volume of 300 cm 3. The glass beaker is
connected with an analog controlled constant-temperature
circulator to maintain the desired fluid temperature for the
experiments.
Experimental Procedure
Four polymers--hydroxyethyl cellulose, polyacrylamide,
carboxymethyl cellulose, and polyacrylic acid--were used in
the study. In all cases deionized water was used as solvent.
 Surface Tension Measurement of Polymers 725

Table 1. Polymers Used in the Study ERROR ANALYSIS

Concentration In the present experiment, the tensiometer was calibrated
Polymer Manufacturer (wppm) using both deionized double-distilled water and methanol at
125 room temperature. First, the surface tension of the water was
Polyacrylamide (PAM), Dow Chemical Co. 250 measured five times. For each surface tension measurement,
Separan AP-30 500 20 data points at room temperature (22.7 ___0.1*C) were
1000 recorded. Experimental mean values were 72.37, 72.40,
250 72.39, 72.39, and 72.39 dyn/cm. The corresponding stan-
Carboxymethyl cellulose, Hercules Company 500 dard deviations were 0.059, 0.061, 0.059, 0.072, and 0.037
1000 dyn/cm (tabulated surface tension at 22.7"C is 72.33
(CMC-7H4)
dyn/cm). The same procedure was used to measure the
2000
surface tension of methanol except that the temperature was
250
20.3 ___0.2"C. Those experimental mean values were 22.64,
Polyacrylic acid (PAA), B.F. Goodrich Co. 500 22.62, 22.61, 22.62, and 22.64 dyn/cm. The corresponding
Carbopol 934 800 standard deviations were 0.044, 0.041, 0.045, 0.041, and
1000 0.066 dyn/cm (tabulated surface tension is 22.62 dyn/cm).
Hydroxyethyl cellulose 250 From these results we can confidently estimate, that the
(HEC) Hercules Company 500 measurement errors were well within 0.5 %.
Natrosol 250HHR 1000
2000
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
wppm, parts per million.
Figure 2 shows the measured steady shear rate viscosities of
the Separan AP-30 and Carbopol 934 solutions. Figure 3
Table 1 lists all the polymer concentrations studied, the
names of the manufacturers, and the trade names of the
polymers. ........ , ........ , ........ , ........ b ........ , ........ r ........

All solutions were prepared in 2000 cm 3 glass beakers. To 10' [ S e p a r a n AP-301 o 125 WPPM
vv A 250 WPPM
minimize degradation of the polymer the aqueous solutions v~ _ o 500 WPPM
were mixed gently with a magnetic stirrer controlled by a '~"~ 1000 WPPM
v
spinner (Cole-Parmer Co.). The Carbopol solutions were o ~ ~ ~. TEMPERATURE= 22°C
neturalized with 10% NaOH to a pH value of 7.0 + 0.1 after
100 ~ Z ~ i,l n ~ V V
the polymer had dissolved in the solvent [13]. The Natrosol o

solutions were prepared at a solvent temperature of - 50"C

to achieve more rapid dissolution as suggested by the manu-
facturer [14]. All other solutions were prepared at room
temperature. lo' ~ o~s~, ~,~ v
In order to characterize the fluid, after a polymer solution
was prepared, the steady shear rate apparent viscosity was
measured over a wide range of shear rates at room tempera-
10 -~ . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I ' . . . . . . . . . . . HI I . . . . . . .

ture by using a Weissenberg rheogoniometer [15], a Brook- 10-a 10-1 10 o 101 10 z 10 s 104 106
field viscometer [16], and a capillary tube viscometer [17]. 7 (.e)
The surface tension measurements were then carried out (a)
using the following procedure:
........ , ........ , ........ , ........ L ........ , ........ , .......
1. The SensaDyne system was calibrated with measurements
101
of Milli-Q water (Milli-Q water is a deionized, double-dis- [Carbopol 9341 I o~° ooo.
.......
~,8°°"PPM
tilled water made with the Milli-Q water purification TEMPERATURE=25~C
system, MiUipore Corp., Bedford, MA) and methanol.
These measurements were carried out at several tempera-
ture levels ranging from 20 to 65"C. 10 °
o
2. The surface tension of a polymer solution was measured m 0 []
O
O
over the same temperature range. 0

3. The glass probes were cleaned, and the surface tension

°°o []
measurements of Milli-Q water were repeated at room 1 0 -I n nnz~,nz ~ zl O00DO
temperature. ~ ' l~' z ~ ~ °° o
0 0 0 0 0 0 000000~nO0
The same sequence was followed for each polymer solu-
tion. The surface tension of deionized water was also mea-
10 -a ........ , ,, ..... , ........ r ........ , ........ , ........
sured frequently. The surface tension values of both Milli-Q 10 -s 10 -1 10" 101 108 10 a 104 105
and deionized water were compared with tabulated data [18] 7 (se~')
obtained with triple-distilled water.
£o)
To validate the method, a DuNoiiy ring tensiometer (Model
215 by Fisher Scientific Co., Pittsburgh, PA) was used to Figure 2. Steady shear rate viscosity measurements of the Sepa-
measure the surface tension of water on a regular basis. ran AP-30 and Carbopol 934 solutions.
726 R . Y . Z . Hu et al.

tO ° ...... , ........ i .... ,

80

o
2 5 o WPPM 0 Milli- Q water
CMC 7H4 a.
5 0 0 WPPM Ll Milli Q water[6]
o
1 0 0 0 WPPM K] Dei~nized water
v 2 0 0 0 WI'PM 75 '~' Delonized water(Du Nouy rilig)
vvs~. - - rJbulated water data[18]
iTEMPERATURE=22°C

[] o o _

v
.~ 10 -1 70
o A O [] V
0 0

~A O v
00 zx 0 V
65
O 0 A BE~
A
O ,~,~A
o
°o o
,t0 =2 . . . . . i .... ....... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ....... , ...... 60
15 20 25 30 35 40 4 5
10-~ 10-1 10 ° 101 102 10 a 104 105
T (see-') T (°C)
(a)
Figure 4. Surface tension measurements of water at different
temperatures.
10 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . .

Natrosol 250HHR ~ %0 v, rrx/

m Z00() WPI%I within 1% of the tabulated data [17]. The water surface
TEMPERATURE =22 ° C tension measurements by the DuNoiiy ring method agree well
with both the tabulated data [17] and the data obtained using
the SensaDyne tensiometer, thus further validating the maxi-
..~ 10 -1 []
mum bubble pressure method.
Figures 5 - 8 present the results of surface tension measure-
[3 D ments as a function of temperature of all the polymer solu-
~4~,~m ~ ~ ~ °o tions studied, with polymer concentration as a parameter.
Z~ ~z~ ~ OOOoo The Separan solutions, for which results are shown in Fig. 5,
°°°~q@0Oo o o ~ ~ ~ o had higher surface tension values than were found for water,
00qbo O000ZXZx~a
0000
with the surface tension increasing with polymer concentra-
[0 -2 ...... i ....... i ........ i ....... i ........ i ...... i ....... tion at a fixed temperature level. At the maximum concentra-
lO-e 10 -1 10 o lO t 10 2 10 s 10 4 10 5 tion studied, 1000 wppm, the surface tension of the Separan
7 (.~E') solution was approximately 5% higher than the value for
(b) water.
The surface tension data for Separan solutions reported by
Figure 3. Steady shear rate viscosity measurements of the CMC Shima et al [1-3] fall in the shaded area in Fig. 5. Their
7H4 and Natrosol 250HHR solutions. polymer concentrations ranged from 0 to 10,000 wppm. In
the low concentration range (2000 wppm or lower), Shima's
data for the Separan solutions were about the same as for
shows the measured apparent viscosities of the CMC and
Natrosol 250HHR solutions. It can be seen from Figs. 2 and
3 that the apparent viscosity ~ decreases with increasing
80
shear rate q for all the polymer solutions; that is all of the
[Separan AP-30] 'O 125 WPPM
polymer solutions studied are shear thinning. The Natrosol I~ 250 WPPM
and CMC solutions showed a well-defined zero shear rate 500 WPPM
v
, V 1000 WPPM
viscosity 7o at the low shear rate range. In the case of the 75
o ov
-~ Tabulated water data
Carbopol and Separan solutions, the zero shear rate asymp- ~e v Paul's data[5]
~lO 13 Miaw's data[41
tote was not reached because of limitation of the rheogo- Shima's data[2]
niometer. A comparison of the lower shear rate viscosities of \\
70 O zx
the 1000 wppm solutions reveals that the Natrosol is the least >, ~'~.~ ~0a
viscous and CMC is slightly more viscous. Carbopol and
Separan show much higher values of low shear rate viscosi- b
ties, with Separan possessing the highest value of all four 65

solutions.
Figure 4 presents the measured surface tension as a func-
tion of temperature of all water samples used in this study. 60 r ,

From this figure we can see that the measured water data are 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
in very good agreement with the tabulated water data [17] T (°C)
(less than 1% difference for all measurements). In particular,
the measured surface tension of deionized water (which was Figure 5. Surface tension measurements of the Separan AP-30
used as the solvent for all of the polymer solutions) is also solutions at different temperatures.
 Surface Tension Measurement of Polymers 727

80 background it is noteworthy that all four of the investigations

, Carbopol 9341
75
-.-
o temperature. This was confirmed over the range of Carbopol
o
70
C
65
60
15 20 25 30 35 40
T (°C)
Figure 6. Surface tension measurements of the Carbopol 934
solutions at different temperatures.
water, with the surface tension results showing a decrease as
the polymer concentration increased. At 10,000 wppm con-
centration the measured surface tension of the Separan solu-
tion was approximately 6% lower than the value of water.
Paul's data [5] for very dilute Separan solutions (0-200
wppm) are also shown in Fig. 5. All of his measurements
were within + 2% of the accepted surface tension values for
water and showed no particular trend with polymer concen-
tration. Miaw's surface tension measurements [4], which
covered a range of Separan concentrations from 0 to 500
wppm, were in agreement with the values reported for water
and were independent of polymer concentration.
The polyacrylamide used in the current study is Separan
AP-30 manufactured by Dow Chemical Co. Miaw [4] and
Paul [5] used the same polymer. The polyacrylamide used by
Shima et al [1-3] was Aronfloc A-20P, manufactured by
Toagosei Chemicals Inc., Japan. It is well known that differ-
ent grades of the same type of polymer may strongly influ-
ence the apparent viscosity, and it would not be surprising if
the surface tension were also strongly influenced. Against this
O 250 WPbM for polyacrylamide concentrations not exceeding 1000 wppm
A 500 WPPM reported surface tension values with a maximum difference
I~ 800 WPPM
V I(H)[) WPPM
of 5%.
Tabulated water data The Carbopol solutions, shown in Fig. 6, show no differ-
ence in the surface tension values from those of water at any
concentration from 0 to 1000 wppm. In brief, the surface
tension values for deionized water can be used for Carbopol
solutions up to concentrations of 1000 wppm.
From Fig. 7 we see that CMC solutions have surface
tension values slightly higher than those for water, with a
trend of increasing values with increasing concentration.
However, the difference is small, reaching approximately 2 %
i , i
at 2000 wppm. The measured surface tension data of the
45 50 55 80 65
CMC solutions obtained by Shima et al [1-3] showed that the
same surface tension values as water when compared at a
fixed temperature. The polymer concentration Shima and
coworkers used ranged from 0 to 10,000 wppm.
It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the Natrosol solutions have
surface tension values lower than those of water and that the
surface tension decreases with increasing concentration. At
the maximum concentration studied, the surface tension of
the Natrosol solution was 8 % lower than the value for water.
At 25"C the Natrosol solutions have an asymptotic value
about 67.6 dyn/cm at 25"C. This asymptotic value decreases
with an increase of solution temperature. It can be seen
clearly from Figure 9 that the surface tension of the Natrosol
solutions has an asymptotic value at a fixed temperature.
The measured surface tension data for the HEC solutions
agree well with Paul's measurements [5] at room temperature
covering the polymer concentration from 0 to 200 wppm.
Although the data of Shima et al (concentration 0-10,000
wppm) showed the same trend as the present study, they
reported lower values for the HEC solutions than those
obtained in this study. In contrast, Miaw's data [4], which
covered the concentration range of 50-1000 wppm, showed
that the surface tension is independent of polymer concentra-
tions and has a value of 65.1 dyn/cm. The HEC polymer
used in the present study is manufactured by Hercules
(Wilmington, DE), trade name Natrosol 250HHR. Paul used

80 80
I ~ 25[} ~PPM
I CMC 7H4 5{){) w PP~,~ I Natrosol 250HHRI o .........
[3 /000 ~PPM
V toOo wP;'xl [ ] IDO{~ WI'PM
- -- Tabulated water data
75 V 2000 WPpM !
75 [] Shima's data[3]
- Tabulated ~ater data i
~. I P a u l s data[SJ I
~. ~'~ ~ A Mmws , l a t a [ l I
V j 0 ". - 5~ Shl~a s data[3]

70 -- -- [3zxV 0 o
70 • 0 ~'~'--. , ,
F m
E .... ~,V ~' ZX 0

tD m, zx o '-..
b
65 65 • s
A 0

80 ' ' 60 ' ' ' '

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

T (°c) T (°C)

Figure 7. Surface tension measurements of the CMC 7H4 solu- Figure 8. Surface tension measurements of the Natroso1250HHR
tions at different temperatures. solutions at different temperatures.
728 R . Y . Z . Hu et al.
8O
[ N a t r o s o l 250HHR] o T=a46 z6.o °c
zx T=30
[] T=40
75 v T=49
0 T=60
~ ~o
~ 7o
b v ~ the Office of Basic Energy Science of the U.S. Department of Energy
o
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
C (WPPM)
Figure 9. Surface tension versus solution concentration for the
Natrosol 250HHR solutions.
the same polymer, but Miaw used the Natrosol 250H poly-
mer. The HEC polymer used by Shima et al is manufactured
by Shinetsu Chemical Industries, Japan. Again, as in the
pelyacrylamide measurements, the difference in the reported
surface tension measurements for the hydroxyethyl cellulose
is not large considering the fact that different polymers were
used by the various investigators.
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
It is generally recognized that the fluid mechanical and heat
transfer behavior of viscoelastic fluid differ substantially from
the corresponding behavior of Newtonian fluids under turbu-
lent channel flow conditions. Such fluids are frequency en-
countered in the petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and food
industries, where they undergo flow and heat transfer pro-
cesses. Accordingly it is important to understand the behavior
of these fluids to properly design systems to handle them.
The desire to understand the pool boiling performance of
these viscoelastic fluids is an obvious extension of forced
convection studies. Such pool boiling studies are aimed at
determining whether the influence of elasticity on the bubble
dynamics results in major improvements over the pool boiling
performance of Newtonian fluids. If so, this could influence
the industrial processing of such fluids. In addition, the use of
polymer additives to enhance the boiling performance of
water under special conditions may also be of practical
importance.
A major physical property affecting boiling performance is
surface tension. In preparation for initiating an extensive
study of the pool boiling behavior of viscoelastic aqueous
polymer solutions, careful measurements of the surface ten-
sion are essential.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The maximum bubble pressure method provides a convenient
and reliable method for measuring the surface tension of
aqueous polymer solutions. The Separan solutions, which are
the most viscous (and the most elastic) of the solutions
studied, are found to have the highest surface tensions, while
the least viscous (and least elastic) Natrosol solutions were
1 -31 4 aC found to have the lowest surface tensions. The surface tension
1 40 8 °C
9 50 3 °C
values for the Carbopol solutions were the same as for water,
0 .60 5 °C whereas the surface tension values for the CMC solutions
were slightly higher than those of water. Relatively good
agreement with previously published studies was reported.
We acknowledgethe financialsupport of the Division of Engineeringof
under grant no. 85ER13311. In addition, we wish to express our thanks
to Dr. C. B. Xie, who provided the Carbopol viscosity data.
1750 2000
NOMENCLATURE
g gravitational acceleration, 980.6 cmJs 2
P maximum bubble pressure, dyn/cm z
L hydrostatic height, cm
r tube radius, cm
wppm parts per million by weight
Greek Symbols
5, shear rate, s - 1
7/ steady shear rate apparent viscosit26 poise
P density difference PC -- P V, g / c m j
(7 surface tension of fluid, dyn/cm
REFERENCES
I. Shima, A., Tsujino, T., and Tanaka, J., Studies of BubbleBehavior
and Non-Newtonian viscosity of Polymer Solutions (Report 1),
Rep. Inst. High Speed Mech. (Tohoku Univ., Japan), 46,
103-129, 1983.
2. Tsujino,T., and Shima, A., Studies of Bubble Behavior and Non-
Newtonian Viscosity of Polymer Solutions (Report 2), Rep. Inst.
High Speed Mech. (Tohoku Univ., Japan), 46, 131-151, 1983.
3. Tsujino, T., and Shima, A., Studies of Bubble Behavior and Non-
Newtonian Viscosity of Polymer Solutions (Report 3), Rep. Inst.
High Speed Mech. (Tohoku Univ., Japan), 46, 153-180, 1983.
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in Nucleate Pool Boiling, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, 1978.
5. Paul, D. D., Nucleate Pool Boiling in Drag-Reducing Polymer
Solutions, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin,Madison, 1982.
6. Hu, R. Y. Z., Nucleate Pool Boiling from a Horizontal Wire in
Viscoelastic Fluids, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, 1989.
7. Simon, P. M., Recherches sur la capillarite, Ann. Chim. Phys.,
32, 5-41, 1851.
8. Jaeger, F. M., Uber die Temperaturabh~ingigkeitder molekularen
freien Oberfl~ichenenergievon Fliissigkeitenim Temperaturbereich
yon -80 bis + 1650°C, Z. Anorg. Allgem. Chem., 101, 1-214,
1917.
9. Cantor, M., Ueber Capallarit~tsconstanten, Wied Ann., 47,
399-423, 1892.
10. Sudgen, S., The Determinationof Surface Tension from the Maxi-
mum Pressure in Bubbles, J. Chem. Soc., 121, 858-866, 1922.
11. SensaDyne 6000 Surface Tensiometer Operator Manual, CSC
Scientific Company, Inc., Fairfax, Va., 1988.
12. Bashforth, F., and Adams, J. C., An Attempt to Test the Theory
of Capillary Action, CambridgeUniv. Press and Deightom, Bell &
Co., 1883.

13. B.F. Goodrich Chemical Group, Carbopol Water Soluble Resins,
the B.F. Goodrich Company, Specialty Polymer and Chemical
Division, Cleveland, Ohio, 1989.
14. Hercules, Natrosol Hydroxyethyl Cellulose, A Non-Ionic Water
Soluble Polymer: Physical and Chemical Properties, Cellulose &
Protein Products Department, Hercules Inc., Wilmington, Del.,
1989.
15. The Weissenberg Rheogoniometer Instruction Manual, Sanga-
mort Controls, Ltd., North Bersted, Bognor Regis, Sussex, England,
1965.
Surface Tension Measurement of Polymers 729
16. Brookfield Viscometer Operation Manual, Brookfield Engineering
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17. Yoo, S. S., Heat Transfer and Friction Factor for Non-Newtonian
Fluids in Turbulent Pipe Flow, Ph.d. Thesis, Univ. Of Illinois at
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18. Weast, R. C., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 70th
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Received June 12, 1990; revised May 20, 1991