VIRGINIA CENTURIONE BRACELLI SCHOOL

Daughters of Our Lady on Mount Calvary

Poctoy, Odiongan, Romblon
S.Y. 2021-2022
QUARTER 2
GENERAL PHYSICS 1 – GRADE 12 MODULE 3
WEEK 5
Name:____________________________________ a) At equilibrium position, the spring offers no restoring force.
b) If the spring is stretched, the displacement is positive and the
LESSON 4: PERIODIC MOTION, restoring force is negative.
MECHANICAL WAVES AND SOUND c) If the spring is compressed, the displacement is negative but the
restoring force is positive.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be

able to:

1. Recognize the necessary conditions for an object to

undergo simple harmonic motion
2. Solve problems involving simple and physical
pendulums
3. Differentiate underdamped, overdamped, and critically
damped motions
4. Describe the conditions for resonance
5. Solve problems involving sound and mechanical waves

The proportionality constant k is called the force

PERIODIC MOTION constant of the spring. It is the force needed to produce a unit of
elongation or compression of the spring and has the unit of N/m.
Periodic motion refers to motion that is repeated at regular intervals It is the measure of the stiffness of the spring. A small
of time.
value of k indicates that the spring can be easily stretched or
Examples: - movements of hands of a clock -
rocking chair compressed. In other words, springs with lesser spring constant will
- the pendulum in a grandfather’s clock have greater displacements than those with larger spring constants for
-. Heartbeat the same amount of force applied. It is usually used in a car’s
- the rotation of blade of an electric suspension system.
- movement of Earth. Example 1
Equilibrium position, otherwise known as resting position is the 1. An oscillating body takes 0.8 s to complete four cycles. What is the
position assumed by the body when it is not vibrating. (a) period, (b) frequency, and c) angular frequency of the body?
Restoring force is the force that tends to restore a body from its Solution:
displacement to its equilibrium position. time 0.8 s
a. T = = = 0.2 s
The amplitude (A) of vibration is the maximum displacement to its number of cycles 4
equilibrium position.
1 1
The period (T) of a body in a periodic motion is the time required to b. f = = =5.0−1∨5.0 Hz
make a complete to-and-fro motion. One complete to=and-fro motion T 0.2 s
is called cycle. Period is usually in seconds. c. ω=2 πf =2(3.14 radians) ¿)
Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per unit time. Its SI unit is the = 31.4 radians/s ≈ 31 radians/s
hertz, (Hz). ON hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
2. A force of 3.0 N elongates a spring by 6.0 cm. (a) What is the force
1 constant of the spring? (b) How much force is needed to elongate the
f=
T spring an additional 6.0 cm?
Sometimes, angular frequency (ω ¿ is used instead of frequency. Solution:
Agular frequency is commonly expressed in radians per second. The F 3.0 N
a. k = = =50 N /m
relationship between angular and frequency is given by x 0.06 m
2π b. F = kx =¿)(0.12 m) = 6.0 N
ω=2 πf ∨ω=
T
Simple Harmonic Motion Energy, Velocity and Acceleration of a Simple Harmonic
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of periodic Oscillator
motion where the restoring force is proportional to the displacement The total mechanical energy of a mass-spring system is the
of the body from its equilibrium position. This restoring force acts in sum of its potential and kinetic energies. As long as there is no
a direction opposite that of displacement. In equation: friction, the total mechanical energy of the system remains constant.
Fs = - kx , where Fs is the restoring force or spring force, x is the When an object is at its maximum displacement, its
velocity, and hence the kinetic energy is zero.
displacement from equilibrium position, and k is a proportionality
constant. The negative sign simply means that the restoring force and
displacement are oppositely directed.
Simple harmonic oscillators are the systems exhibiting simple Pendulum
harmonic motion. A pendulum is any object which can swing freely from a
pivot point under the influence of gravity. It may be simple or
physical.
A simple pendulum consists of a concentrated mass called
the bob suspended by a light thread and attached to a fixed support.
A physical pendulum is one where the hanging object is a
Simple Harmonic Oscillator rigid body.
mass-spring system – The simplest form of a simple harmonic
F = mg sinθ
oscillator is a body of mass m oscillating on one end of an elastic
spring.
Equation for the period of simple pendulum, T = 2 π
√ L
g
Based on the equation, the period of a simple pendulum is governed
by the following laws.
1. The period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the
square root of its length.
2. The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the
acceleration due to gravity.
3. The period is independent of the mass of the bob.
4. The period is independent of the angular amplitude if the angular
displacement is small, say less than or equal to 10o.
Basic Wave Relation
Example 2 All waves follow the basic relation:
A simple pendulum of length 50.0 cm takes 5 s to make 10 complete
back-and-forth motion.
v=fλ
(a) Find its period. (b) What will be its period when its length is where v is the speed of wave in meters per seconds, f is the
increased to 200.0 cm? frequency in hertz, and λ is the wavelength in meters.
Solution:
time 5s
a. T = = =0.5 s
number of cycles 10
b. Based on the laws governing the period of a simple pendulum,
T 1 √ L1
= , Using this equation and substituting values,
T 2 √ L2
Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points in a
0.5 s
T2
=
√50.0 cm
200.0 cm
T 2=1.0 s
wave train which are in phase with each other.
The distance from point 1 to point 7, or point 4 to point 10, or from
point 2 to point 8 is a wavelength.

Speed of Transverse wave in a String

Damped Oscillation The speed of a transverse wave in a string varies directly to the
Damped harmonic oscillation square root of the tension in the string and it varies inversely to the
Three types of Damped Oscillations square root of its linear mass density.

√
1. underdamped – the system oscillates with decreasing amplitude
T μ is its linear mass density in
until it become zero v= where T is the tension in N,
Example: a swing pushed just once μ
2. critically damped –It returns to equilibrium without oscillating. It kg/m, and v is the speed in m/s.
returns to equilibrium faster than overdamped. Linear mass density μ is the mass of the string divided by is length.
Example: door closing
3. overdamped – A spring mechanism that closes the door gradually

Forced Vibration and Resonance

Every simple harmonic oscillator has its natural frequency.
m
μ= = ρA = ρπ r 2
l
Example 3
Therefore, v=
√
T
ρπ r
2

1. What is the speed of the wave in a guitar string with a length of

However, if such system is subjected to an external force, a forced 0.65 m and a mass of 3.5 g when subjected to a tension of 250 N?
vibration occurs. Solution:
Resonance is the condition wherein the frequency of the force First, solve for the mass of the linear density,
matches the natural frequency of the vibrating system.
m 0.0035 kg
Some effects of resonance: μ= = =5.38 x 10−3 kg /m ≈ 5.4 x 10-3 kg/m
 shattering of wine goblet by operatic tenor Enrico Caruso l 0.65 m

√ √
while singing 250 N
T = = 215.5 m/s ≈ 216 m/s
 collapsing of buildings and other structures during v=
earthquakes μ 5.38 x 10−3 kg/m

PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF WAVES Speed of Longitudinal Wave

A wave is a disturbance propagating in a medium or in a
vacuum, carrying energy with them. A single unrepeated disturbance
is called a wave pulse. A succession of periodic disturbance is called
a wave train.
Classification of Waves
1. Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate. They cannot
travel in a vacuum.
Examples: sound waves, ripples, tsunami, seismic waves
Isaac Newton found out that the speed with which a longitudinal
wave propagates through a medium depends upon the density and
elastic modulus of medium. Elastic modulus refers to the ratio of
force applied to an object that measures the object’s resistance from
being deformed elastically. The higher the elastic modulus, the faster
the wave propagates because of the greater force acting on the
vibrating particles of the medium. The denser the material, the slower
the waves propagates.

√
2. Electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum. E
Examples: light, radio waves, microwaves The speed of the longitudinal wave is given by the equation: v=
Waves maybe longitudinal or transverse. ρ
A transverse wave is one in which the medium are Where E is the elastic modulus of the medium in N/m 2 and ρ is its

√
vibrating perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation. The Y , where Y is the
top of the wave is called crest while the bottom of the wave is called density in kg/m3. Specifically for solids, v=
trough. Crest is the point of maximum upward displacement from ρ
equilibrium position while trough is the point of maximum downward Young’s modulus of the solid and ρ is its density.

√
displacement from equilibrium position. All electromagnetic waves
For fluids (liquids and gases), v=
β , where β is the bulk
are transverse waves.
A longitudinal wave is one in which the particles of the ρ
medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. It is modulus of the flud and ρ is its density.
composed of compressions, where particles of the medium are closer Example 4
together, and rarefactions where they are farther apart. Soundwaves A dynamite explodes and it sounds propagates through the sea where
are longitudinal waves. the temperature is 25oC. The sound of the explosion also propagates
through the air at a temperature of 25oC. What will be the difference
in the time of arrivals between two signal at a station that is 5 km
away? (bulk modulus of seawater = 2.0 x 109 N/m2; density of
seawater = 10025 kg/m3; molar mass of air = 0.029 kg).
Solution:
In seawater,
A special case of interference occurs when two waves of equal
frequency and amplitude but travelling in opposite direction meet.
The result is a standing wave pattern consisting of nodes and
antinodes. Nodes are points where the particles of the medium are not
displaced from their equilibrium position. Antinodes are points
where particles experience maximum displacement.

√ √
9 2 The wavelength of sound produced is twice its length ( λ = 2L).
β = 2.0 x 10 N /m
v= The string can also vibrate at other frequencies that are integral
ρ 1025 kg/m
3
multiples of the
3 3 fundamental frequency.
¿ 1.39 x 10 m/s ≈ 1.4 x 10 m/ s
These frequencies are
d 5000 m called harmonic
An so, t = = = 3.59 s
v 1.39 x 103 m/ s frequencies.
In air, v
f N =N
√
, where N =
γRT 2L
v= where R is the universal gas constant equal to 8.314
1,2,3….If N = 1, the
M
J/mol.K, T is the temperature in kelvin, and M is the molar mass in frequency emitted is the
fundamental frequency. It
kg/mol. γ has an approximate value of 1.40 for air and other diatomic
is also called first
gases. It is approximately equal to 1.66 for monatomic gases. harmonic. If N = 2, the frequency is called second harmonic., and so

√
on. All frequencies higher than the fundamental are called overtones.
J Thus, for the vibrating string, the second harmonic is called first
v=¿ 1.39( 8.314 mol . K )(298 K) = 344.6 m/s ≈ 345 overtone, the third is called second overtone and so on.
Example
0.029 kg / mol The fundamental frequency of a string is 200 Hz. Find the first three
m/s overtones.
d 5000 m Solution:
And so, t = = =14.50 s First overtone = second harmonic = 2(200 Hz) = 400 Hz
v 344.6 m/ s
Second overtone = third harmonic = 3(200 Hz) = 600 Hz
Time difference = 14-50 s – 3.59 s = 10.91 s
Third overtone = fourth harmonic = 4(200 Hz) = 800 Hz
Therefore the time of their arrivals differs by 10.91 s ≈ 11 s .
SOUND BASICS
Energy Transmission by Wave Sound is a longitudinal wave created by vibrating objects and
A strong earthquake may cause buildings and other capable of producing a sensation in our auditory system. The audible
infrastructure to collapse. An intense sound may cause deafness, frequency range for humans is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Sounds with
either temporary or permanent. Sunlight makes photosynthesis and frequencies lower than 20 Hz are called infrasounds. Some animals
life possible here on Earth. We feel the force of water waves while such as whales and elephants communicate using infrasounds. Sound
swimming in the beach. All these are pieces of evidence that energy with frequencies higher than 20 000Hz are called ultrasounds.
is indeed carried by waves. Ultrasounds can be used to produced images of soft
Waves transfer energy but not matter. tissues like the liver, spleen, kidney, pancreas, abdomen, pelvis, heart
When a sinusoidal wave passes through a medium, each and fetus.
particle of the medium moves in simple harmonic motion. Speed of Sound
The total energy of the particle is: The speed of sound in a medium like solid, liquid or gas can be
1 2 determined using the following formula for the sound of longitudinal
E= kA wave in the previous lesson. Air is a common medium where sound
2
travel. The speed of sound in air as a function of temperature was
But k =4 π 2 m f 2. Therefore, E = 2 π 2 mf 2 A 2 determined by Isaac Newton and is given by this equation:
The energy of the mechanical wave is proportional of the m
square of its frequency and square of its amplitude. v=331 +(0.6 m/s .℃)T c
Example 6 s
The ratio of the energy of wave A to energy of Wave B is 1: 4. If all The speed of sound in air is 331 m/s at 0 ℃ . For each Celsius degree
other factors are the same, what is the ratio of their amplitudes? rise in temperature, the speed of sound in air increase by 0.6 m/s.
Since all other factors are equal,
E1 A 21 Characteristics of Sound
= 1. pitch - refers to the highness or lowness of a sound. IT depends
E2 A 22 upon the frequency of the vibrating object.

√ √
A1 E 1 1
= 1= =
A2 E2 4 2
Interference
Interference occurs when two or more waves meet while passing
through the same medium at the same time. According to the
superposition principle, when two or more waves travel
simultaneously in the same medium, each wave proceed
independently of the others. The resulting disturbance is the sum of
the individual waves. Interference may be totally constructive, totally
destructive, or partially destructive. Constructive interference
happens when tow waves of the same frequency, in phase and
travelling in the same direction meet. Total destructive interference
occurs when two waves of the same amplitude and frequency but are
180o out of phase with each other meet. The waves completely cancel
each other out and there will be no resultant wave. Partial destructive
interference happens when the abovementioned waves have different
amplitudes. The resultant wave has an amplitude equal to the
difference of the amplitudes of the component waves.
Standing Waves in String
2. Loudness – It is closely associated with its intensity. Sound
intensity is perceived by the human ear as loudness. Greater intensity
means louder sound.
The human ear can tolerate a wide range of intensities. The faintest
sound that we can hear is called threshold of hearing and has an
intensity of 10-12 W/m2. The loudest tolerable but painful sound has an
intensity of 1 W/m2.. This intensity is called threshold of pain.
Intensities of sound are oftentimes compared on logarithmic scale.
The unit of intensity level in this scale is decibel, abbreviated as dB.
I
β=10 log , where Io is the threshold of hearing equal to 1 x 10 -
Io
12
W/m2.
3. Quality or timbre is a property of a tone that distinguishes it from
another tone of the same pitch and intensity produced by a different
instrument.
Hermann Helmholtz found out that the quality of sound is determined
by the number and relative intensities of the harmonics superimposed
with the fundamental.
Examples:
 ( )
1. What is the sound intensity level in decibel at the threshold of v
'
hearing? f= f.
Solution: v−v s
I When the source is moving away, the wavelength becomes longer by
β=10 log an amount v s T and the frequency perceived by the observer is:
Io
= 10 log
1 x 10−12 W /m2
1 x 10−12 W /m2
=0 dB f=
'
( v+vv ) f
s
.

4. Beats is the alterations in loudness when twos sounds of slightly Case 3: Source in Motion; Observer in Motion
different frequencies are produced at the same time, a regular rise and When both the source and observer are in motion, the apparent
fall in the loudness. The beat frequency f B is equal to the difference frequency is given by:
between the frequencies of the two sound waves f ∧f ' . v ± vo
f
'
=[ ¿f
f B =f −f ' v±vs
5. Echo is the reflection of sound that maybe reflected from walls, In the numerator, the plus sign is used when the observer is moving
mountains, ground and other barriers. Sound persists in the human toward the source; minus sign if moving away. In the denominator,
ear for about 0.10 s. The human ear can distinguish the echo from the the minus sign is used if the source is moving toward the observer;
original sound only if they arrive at the human ear with a time plus sign if moving away.
difference of at least 0.1 s. Example:
Sonar, an acronym for sound navigation and ranging, is an The frequency of a fire siren is 1750 Hz. (a) What frequency will a
underwater system for detecting and locating objects by means of stationary person hear if the fire truck is moving toward him at 18.0
echoes. Sonar devices emit sounds and measure the time it takes for m/s. (b) What frequency will a person hear if he moves away from
an echo to return. Sonar is used to determine the depth of water and the fire truck at 8.0 m/s? Assume the speed of sound is 340 m/s.
to locate as school of fish, a submarine, or sunken ships. The Solution:
wreckage of Titanic was discovered at a depth of more than 3 600 m a.

( )
using sonar. m
340
( v−vv ) f = 340 m −18.0 m 1750 Hz=1847.8 Hz
Echolocation is the use of sound waves and their corresponding
' s
echoes to navigate. Blind people use echolocation to move around f=
using cues from the sound produced – for example, by taping their s
canes. Bats, dolphins and toothed whales also used echolocation to s s
navigate and find prey.
b.
Doctors use echocardiography or diagnostic cardiac ultrasound to

( )
detect heart problems. A probe called a transducer produces sound m
340 −8.0 m/s
v−v o
( ) s
waves as it passes over a patient’s chest. '
Example: f= f= 1750 Hz=1708.8 H z
In an effort to locate a sunken ship, a sonar generator sends waves in
v 340 m/s
seawater. The echoes reflected by the sunken ship were received after
18.0 s. How deep is the sunken ship? (bulk modulus of seawater = 2.0
x 109 N/m2; density of seawater = 1025 kg/m3.
Activity 1
Solution:
First compute for the velocity of sound in seawater. A. Solve the following problems.

√ √
9 3 1.It takes 365.25 days for the earth to complete one revolution around
β 2.0 x 10 N /m the sun. Calculate the (a) period, (b) frequency, and (c) angular
v s= = = 1396.8 m/s
ρ 1025 kg/m
3 frequency of earth as it revolves around the sun.
To calculate the depth, use half of the time that the echo was reflected 2. A vertical spring has a force constant of 125 N/m. By how much
by the sunken ship. will the spring be compressed if a mass of 0.0525 kg is placed on top
Depth = (1396.8 m/s)(9.0 s ) = 12571 m of it?

Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the pitch (frequency) of the 3. A simple pendulum of length 60.0 cm takes 6 s to make 12
perceived sound due to the motion of the source and/or observer. complete back-and-forth motion.
Doppler Effect case by case: (a) Find its period (b) What will be its period when its length is
increase to 240.0 cm?
f is the frequency of sound fromt he source
'
f is the apparent frequency 4. Compare the apparent frequencies of a 2450 Hz source moving
v is the velocity of sound ∈medium ,usually ∈air away from you at 25 m/s and when you are moving away from the
source at 25 m/s.
v s is the veloctyi of source of sound
v o is the velocity of the observer B. Answer the following briefly.
' 1. What causes periodic motion?
λ is theapparent wavelength 2. What would the world be without waves?
λ is the wabelengthof sound ¿ the source 3. How is sound produce?

Case 1: Observer in Motion; Source at rest

vo LESSON 5: FLUID MECHANICS
f' = f +
λ
If the observer is moving away from the source, instead of receiving Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be
additional waves, he receives lesser number of waves resulting in a able to:
reduced frequency given by: 1. Relate density, specific gravity, mass and volume to each

( v−vv ) f .
other
f '= o 2. Relate pressure to force, area, fluid density and depth
3. Calculate hydrostatics and atmospheric pressure at any
altitude
Case 2. Source in Motion; Observer at rest
4. Use Pascal’s principle to analyze fluids
The wavelength of sound reaching the observer is 5. Calculate the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on the body.
λ ' =λ−v s T , and the frequency that the observer is the velocity of 6. Solve problems involving fluid dynamics
sound divided by the shortened wavelength.
 Pressure is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is pascal (Pa), named after the
Density French scientist Blaise Pascal. One Pascal is equivalent to 1
Fluids mechanics is the study of the properties of fluids. newton/m2. The atmosphere (atm) is a commonly used unit of
Hydrostatics or fluids statics deals with fluids at rest. pressure and it defined as the average air pressure at sea level.
Hydrodynamics of fluids dynamics deals with fluids in motion. Example:
Mass density or simply density is a property of matter defined as the A volunteer weighing 750 N sits on a bed of 150 closely spaced nails.
ratio of its mass (m) to its volume (V). In equation form, Each nail has a cross-sectional area of 0.00025 m 2. Assuming that
m the volunteer occupies the entire space of 150 nails, (a) what pressure
ρ= do the nails exert on the volunteer? (b) If instead the volunteer sits on
V only one nail, how much pressure does the nail exert on him?
Its Si unit is kg/m3, while its cgs unit is g/cm3. Solution:
Density of Solid a. On the bed of nails,
Example:
F1 750 N 4
A 0.854 kg cylinder has a diameter of 13.4 cm and a height of 25.2 P= = 2
=20 000 Pa=2.0 x 10 Pa
cm. What is the density of this cylinder? A 150(0.00025 m )
Solution: b. On one nail,
First, the volume of the cylinder must be determined. F1 750 N
v=π r h
2 P= = 2
=3.0 x 10 6 Pa
A (0.00025 m )
13.4 cm This means that if the volunteer sits on only one nail, the pressure
r= =6.70 cm
2 would be 150 time greater than when he sits on the bed of nails.
v=3.14 ¿
Hydrostatic Pressure
m 0.854 kg 3
ρ= = =240 kg/m Hydrostatic pressure is the force per unit area that a confined liquid
V 3.552 x 10−3 m 3 exerts on all parts of its container or on any part of the object
immersed in it.
Density a Liquid F = w = mg = ( ρV ¿ g
The density of a liquid is usually determined by using a bottle called Since V = Ah,
pycnometer with a known volume capacity. The pycnometer is F = ρAhg
weighed (in terms of mass) twice. (1) when it is empty and (2) when Therefore, the pressure due to the weight of the liquid is
it is filled with the given liquid. The mass of the liquid is the
F ρghA
difference between these two masses. P= = =ρgh
Examples: A A
1. A 235 mL pycnometer has a mass of 500 g when empty and 670 Hydrostatic Paradox
when filled with an unknown liquid. What is the density of the liquid Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician, physicist, and engineer,
in kg/m3? discovered the so-called “hydrostatic paradox”, that is, the downward
Solution: pressure of a liquid does not depend on the shape of the container but
Mass of liquid m = 670 g – 500 g = 170 g only on the height of the liquid. Blaise Pascal built an apparatus, now
m known as Pascal vases, demonstrating the paradox.
ρ= =
V Example:
170 g g 1 kg 1000 mL 1L How
3 high should an intravenous bag be for the fluid to just enter the
=0.723 x x x =723 kg /m
235 mL mL 1000 g 1L 0.001 m
3 vein? Assume that the density of the fluid is equal to that of water
and the blood pressure is 20 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure.
Density of Ideal Gas Solution:
The effects of temperature and pressure on the density of liquids are Let us convert 20 mm Hg to pascal
minimal.
The density of an ideal gas law.
PV = nRT
P = (20 mm Hg)
(
1.013 x 105 P
760 mm Hg
=2666 Pa )
m m P 2666 Pa
Since n = , therefore, PV = RT . h= =
M M ρg m
(1000 kg ¿ m3)(9.8 2 ) = 0.27 m
m s
Rearranging the terms, PM = RT
V
Atmospheric Pressure
m
But =ρ. Thus, PM = ρRT .Solving for density, At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1.013 x 10 5 Pa or 1.0
V atm. Just as water pressure is cause by the weight of the water,
PM atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight if the air. However, air
ρ= is compressible, and therefore, its density varies with height. The
RT density of air decreases at higher altitude.
Note that R is equal to 8.314 J/mol if the pressure is in Pa, molar Assumptions about the variation of pressure with altitude in Earth’s
mass in kg/mol, and temperature in K. atmosphere:
Example: 1. air is an ideal gas
What is the density of 1 mol of oxygen gas at 0 o C and pressure of 2. the temperature of the air is constant
1.013 x 105 N/m3. One mole of oxygen gas has a mass of 32 g. 3. the variation of the acceleration due to gravity with altitude is
Assume that oxygen follows the ideal gas law. negligible
Solution: 4. density is proportional to pressure.
5 N The variation of pressure with altitude is:
(1.013 x 10 )( 32 g)
PM m2 P= Po e
−0.125 h
ρ= = =1.428 kg/m3
RT J Where P0 is the atmospheric pressure at ground level (equal to 1.013
(8.314 . K )(273 K ) x 105 Pa) and h is the height (or altitude) in kilometers.
mol
PRESSURE Example:
Pressure is defined as the magnetic of the force acting perpendicular Airplanes normally fly at an altitude of 36 000 ft. Find the
per unit area of the surface. atmospheric pressure at this altitude.
Solution:
F1
P= Convert first 36 000 ft to km
A
 −4 mA = m B
3.048 x 10 km
h=(36 000 ft)( ) = 10.97 km Therefore, ρ A B A =ρb V B .
1.0 ft
−0.125 h Bernoulli’s Equation
P = Po e = (1.013 x 105 Pa)e−−0.125 (10.97 km) = 25 709 Pa
Bernoulli’s equation relates velocity, pressure and elevation at
points in a line of flow. This can be done using the work-energy
Pascal’s Principle theorem.
It states that any change in pressure in an enclosed fluid at rest is Using the work-energy theorem,
transmitted completely to all parts of the fluid. With this principle Work done due to pressure difference + work done by gravity =
hydraulic press was invented which is used in operating tables, change in kinetic energy
dental chairs, car jacks, and automobile repair stations to raise cars. 1 1
F 1 ∆ x 1−F 2 ∆ x 2 ¿+( mgh1 −mgh 2)= mv22− mv 21
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY 2 2
Buoyant force is an upward force acting on an object due to fluid Some examples or application of Bernoulli’s equation are blowing air
pressure. over a piece of paper causes the paper to go up, roofs of houses being
Archimedes’ principle states that the magnitude pf buoyant force FB blown off when there is hurricane or tornado and an umbrella being
i=on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced blown inside out by a strong wind.
by the object.
FB = wF
Balloons are filled with light gas for them to float in air. The so- Activity 2
called hot air balloons make use of heated air to make them rise. Hot
air rises because it is less dense than cool air. A. Solve the following problems.
1. An aluminum sphere has a diameter of 15.6 cm. What is its mass?
If the density of the object is equal to the density of the liquid, 2. A plastic container has a mass of 55 g when empty and 175 g when
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object. The object will filled with alcohol. If the density of alcohol is 0.79 g/mL, what is
float. its volume?
Example: 3. Find the density of air at 0 ℃ and 1.013 x 105 Pa. One mole of air
An aluminum ball of mass 54.0 g and density of 2.70 g/cm 3 is placed may be assumed to be 79 percent nitrogen (M niitrogen = 28.0 g) and
in a beaker filled with water. (a) What is the volume of the ball? (b) 21 percent oxygen (Moxygen = 32.0 g).
What is the volume of water that will spill out of the beaker? (c) 4. what height of water column will exert a pressure of 1.013 x 10 5
What is the buoyant force of the water on the ball? Pa?
Solution: 5. The peak of Mount Everest is 8848 m above sea level. What is the
m 54.0 g atmospheric pressure at the peak of this mountain?
a. V = = =20.0 cm3
ρ 2.70 g /cm3 B. Answer briefly.
b. Since the density of the ball is greater than the density of water, the 1. When will an object float in liquid? When it will sink?
ball will sink. The volume of water that will spill out is equal to that 2. How can the motion of fluids be described?
of the ball, which 20.0 cm3. 3. How does the density of a materiel affect its use?
c. The buoyant force of water on the ball is
FB = ρ F Vg= (1.0 g/

(
cm 3 ¿ ( 20.0 cm3 ) 980
cm
s
2 )
=19600 dynes=0.196 N

2. What percent of volume of ice is submerged in water? Ice has a LESSON 6: HEAT, TEMPERATURE, AND
density of 900 kg/m3. THERMODYNAMICS
Solution
density of ice Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be
Percent of volume submerged = x 100 %
density of water able to:
3
900 kg/m
= 3
x 100 %=90 % 1. Know the Zeroth law of thermodynamics
1000 kg/m 2. Solve problems on thermal expansion, calorimetry and heat
transfer
HYDRODYNAMICS 3. Explain the different thermodynamics processes
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.
The blood in our body, the wind, and the water in pipelines are Heat and Temperature
examples of moving fluids. Temperature - is defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy
The following assumptions must be made in studying fluids in of molecules making up an object.
motion: Heat – is the energy in transit from one body to another due to a
1. The fluid is ideal, that is incompressible difference in temperature. It is the measure of total kinetic energy of
(density remains constant) and has no or negligible viscosity or fluid the molecules of a body. TH SI unit of heat is joule (J). A more
friction. common unit of heat is calorie. A calorie is defined as the amount of
2. The flow is steady heat needed to change the temperature of one gram of water from
14.5℃ - 15.5℃ at a pressure of 1 atm.
The flow of an ideal fluid is governed by two equations:
Temperature Scales
1. continuity equation
Ice point is defined as the temperature at which ice melts under a
2. Bernoulli’s equation
pressure of 1.013 x 105 Pa or 1 atm.
Continuity equation is an expression of the conservation of mass.
Steam point is the temperature at which water boils under pressure
of 1.013 x 105 Pa or 1 atm.
Continuity Equation
The triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure where
The continuity equation is an expression of the conservation of
all its three phases are in equilibrium. The triple point of water is at
mass. The mas of a fluid passing through one section of a pipe at a
273. 16 K (0.01℃ ) and 4.58 mm Hg. Absolute zero is the
given time interval ∆ t must pass through any section of the pipe in
temperature at which all molecules stop moving. It is the lowest
the same time interval.
possible temperature at which no substance can be cooled. This
The continuity equation states that the mass of a fluid passing through
corresponds to 0 K.
section A (mA) is equal to the mass of the fluid passing through
section B(mB). In symbols,
The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to attain
the absolute zero temperature. Thus the Kelvin scale cannot have
negative temperatures.
Thermal Equilibrium and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies are said
to be in thermal equilibrium of they have the same temperature. IT is
formulated in 1931 by a British physicist and astronomer Ralph H
Fowler. If TA = TB and TA = TC, then TB = TC. In effect, the zeroth law
of thermodynamics is similar to the transitive law in algebra.
THERMAL EXPANSION
When heat is applied to a material, its molecules do not increase in
size. Rather, they vibrate back and forth over greater distance and
with greater average speeds. This in turn causes the material to
expand. Thermal expansion I greater in gases and least in solids.
Thermal expansion is an important consideration in constructing
buildings and infrastructure. Seams are placed in concrete highways
and sidewalks to allow froe expansion and prevent cracklings.
Expansion gaps are placed between railroad rails and bridge to
prevent damage.
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Three quantities to be considered in the thermal expansion of solids.
1. proportional to its original length (L o). when subjected to the same
temperature change, longer rods will have greater change in length
than shorter rods of the same material.
2. proportional to the change in temperature (∆ T ). A rod subjected
to a temperature increase of 40℃ will expand twice than when
subjected to a temperature increase of 20℃ .
3. dependent on the material of which the rod is made. An aluminum
rod will expand differently from a copper rod of the same length even
if subjected to the same temperature increase.
Thermal Expansion of Liquids
Liquids have no definite shape but have definite volume.
Volume expansion is measured instead of linear or area expansion.
Thermal Expansion of Gases
CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the amount
Of heat gained or lost in a chemical reaction. It comes from the Latin
word calor meaning “heat” and Greek word metron meaning “
measure”. Joseph Black, A Scottish physician and chemist is
considered the father of calorimetry, having discovered heat and
specific heat. He also discovered carbon dioxide.
insulator. The Si unit of k is J/s.m.Co. It may also be expressed in
W/m.Co.
Thermal resistance ( R ) of an insulator is the ratio of its thickness (L)
to its thermal conductivity (k ¿ . In symbols,
L The First Law of Thermodynamics states that when heat is added
R= . The SI unit of thermal resistance is m2.Co.s/J or m2Co/W.
k to a system, some of it remains in the system, increasing its internal
2. Convection is the primary mechanism of heat transfer for fluids. It
is the movement of the particles of fluids that transfer heat. This
movement of fluids is called convection current.
Convection plays an important role in nature as it causes wind, sea
breeze, and land breeze in coastal areas.
3. Radiation is the heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves are waves that can propagate even in a
vacuum and travel with a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.
Heat from the sun reaches Earth by radiation.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and its transformation to
mechanical energy. It literally means “moving or evolving heat.”
Sadi Carnot is considered as one of the foundress of
thermodynamics.
System is the object or collection of object under study.
Surroundings is everything around the system.
Universe constitute the system and the surroundings.
A system is considered closed when no mass enters or leaves the
system. Ex. A balloon being heated so that gas inside it expands.
Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one.
Q Q
c= =
m ∆ t m(T −T o )
C is the specific heat, Q is the quantity of heat, and ∆ T is the
change in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat is J/kg.C o or
J/kg.K.
Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of an object by one degree. Thu heat capacity is the
product of the mass of an object and its specific heat.
Example: The heat capacity of 3.0 kg of water is equal to (3.0 kg)
(4186 J/kg.Co) = 12558 J/Co. The heat capacity of 2.0 kg of water is
8372 J/Co.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is transferred whenever there is a difference in temperature.
1. Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular collision due to
temperature difference. During conduction, the average positions of
the molecules of an object do not change. The molecules simply
vibrate back and forth within the vicinity of their equilibrium
position. Conduction is the primary mode of heat transfer for solids.
Factors affecting the rate of conduction:
1. Temperature difference (∆ T ¿ between bodies or regions. The
greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat
transfer. Heat transfer will stop only when the two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium. Thus, Q is proportional to ∆ T .
2. Thickness or length (L) of the conductor. The longer the
conductor, the less heat will flow through in a certain period of time.
Hence, Q is inversely proportional to L.
3. Time (t). The amount of heat is proportional to the length of time
during which conduction takes place. More heat will flow for a
longer period of time. Therefore, Q is proportional to t.
4. Cross-sectional area (A). The greater the cross-sectional area, the
greater the amount of heat conducted. Thus, Q is proportional to A.
Thermal conductivity (k ¿ is a measure of the ability of a material
to conduct heat.
Different materials conduct heat differently. If k is high, the material
is a good thermal conductor. If k is low, the material conducts heat
poorly and is called a thermal
Open system is one where mass and energy may be added or
removed from the system. Ex. Plants and animals are open systems
because mass enters them in the form of food and oxygen.
A system is isolated if neither mass nor energy enters or leaves the
system.
energy, while the rest leaves the system as the system does work.
Q = ∆ U +W
Where Q is the heat added to the system, ∆ U is the change in
internal energy, and W is the work done by the system.
engine is water; for gasoline engine it is gasoline-air mixture.
Heat engines follow a pattern of operation:
1) heat (QH) is supplied to the engine by an external source called hot
reservoir or heat source
2) part of this heat is used to do work on an object
3) the rest of the heat (Q C) is released at a temperature lower than the
input temperature to an external place called the cold reservoir or the
heat sink.
Types of Heat Engines
1. Internal combustion engine burns the fuel inside the engine. Ex.
Otto engines and diesel engines
2. External combustion engine burns the fuel outside the engine.
Ex. Steam engines
Efficiency of Heat engines
How much of the input heat is converted to work determines the
efficiency of a heat engine.
 work 1. What are the three methods of heat transfer? Briefly describe each
ε= x 100% method. Give one example of situation involving each or
heat input combination of the three methods of heat transfer.
But W = QH – QC. Therefore,

(
ε = 1−
Qc
QH ) x 100%

The human body is considered as a heat engine with food as the main
source of energy. However only 20 to 30 percent of this energy is
converted to useful work.

Refrigerators and Air Conditioners

Heat pumps are heat engines operating in reverse. A heat pump
takes heat from the cold reservoir and discards it to the hot reservoir.
The coefficient of performance (COP) of a heat pump is defined as
the heat removed from the heat sink (Q C) divided by the work (W)
done to remove the heat.
QC
COP =
W
1) Q is positive (+) when heat is added to the system and negative (-)
when heated is removed from the system.
2) W is positive (+) when work is done by the system and negative ( -
) when work is done on the system.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics limit the amount of work a heat
engine can do for a certain amount of heat. It maybe stated in three
ways.
1. Kelvin-Planck statement. No heat engine can completely convert
heat energy to work. In other words, there is no 100 percent efficient
heat engine.
2. Clausius statement. Heat flows naturally from hot to cold objects.
3. Entropy statement. When reversible process occurs, the total
entropy of the universe remains the same. When an irreversible
process occurs, the total entropy of the universe increases.
Equivalently, the entropy of an isolated system remains the same or
increases.
Heat engines is a device that converts thermal energy to mechanical
energy. Working substance is the substance inside the engine that
undergoes cooling and/or heating, compressions and/or expansion,
and sometimes phase change. For example: the working substance in
a steam.

Activity 3

A. Answer the following.

1. What is the difference between heat and temperature?
2. What makes a material expand or contract?
3. What is a necessary condition for thermal equilibrium?
4. How does the first law of thermodynamics affect our lives?

Performance Task 1