GEN BIOLOGY 1
Lactose intolerance happens when your small
nd
2 Quarter
REVIEWER FOR DEPARTMENTAL EXAMINATION
An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost
always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific
reaction in the cell. Since enzymes are proteins, they are
composed of monomers known as amino acids.
Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions
because they lower the energy of activation, the
energy that must be supplied in order for molecules to
react with one another.
Enzymes are a type of protein found in
cells. Enzymes create various chemical reactions in the
body. The function of enzymes in the body is very
important, namely creating a reaction for the body such
as building muscles, destroying toxins, and breaking
down food particles during the digestive
process. Enzymes are produced naturally in the body.
This response is considered appropriate, in the absence
of enzymes, higher temperatures will complete the
reactions necessary to sustain life. This is because an
increase in temperature will increase the rate of a
reaction, where the reaction will stimulate energy
stimulation activity (in the reaction process) so that a
higher increase in temperature can replace the role
of enzymes in a body reaction.
The Active Site
The part of the enzyme where the substrate binds is
called the active site (since that's where the catalytic
“action” happens).
What is lactose intolerance?
Lactose intolerance is when your body can't break down
or digest lactose. Lactose is a sugar found in milk and
milk products.
intestine does not make enough of a digestive
enzyme called lactase. Lactase breaks down
the lactose in food so your body can absorb it.
People who are lactose intolerant have
unpleasant symptoms after eating or drinking
milk or milk products. These symptoms include
bloating, diarrhea and gas.
Enzymes need optimal conditions
Each enzyme works within quite a small pH
range. There is a pH at which its activity is
greatest (the optimal pH). This is
because changes in pH can make and break
intra- and intermolecular bonds, changing
the shape of the enzyme and, therefore, its
effectiveness.
Enzymes need the right conditions to work. If
conditions aren't right, enzymes can change
shape. Then, they no longer fit with substrates,
so they don't work correctly.
These are chemicals or compounds
that resemble the normal substrate
molecule and compete for admission
into the active site.
The enzyme inhibitor closely resembles the
substrate in its molecular structure and inhibits
enzyme activity by binding to the active site of the
enzyme.
An endothermic process absorbs heat and
cools the surroundings of the starting reactants;
it is very unstable and is referred to as the
transition state.
Energy flow in the life of a cell
 Ribozymes are RNA molecules that accelerate
chemical reactions, enzymes that happen to be made of
RNA rather than protein.

Substances that speed up a reaction without being used

up destroyed or incorporated into the product is a
catalyst.

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction—

without being a reactant—is called a catalyst. The
catalysts for biochemical reactions that happen in living
organisms are called enzymes.
The
Cofactors are inorganic species or at least nonprotein The substrate is the reactant an enzyme act
compounds that aid enzyme function by increasing the
rate of catalysis. Typically, cofactors are metal ions. The substance an enzyme works on is a
substrate. The substrate also has a unique
The increase of reaction rate of enzymes: shape. The enzyme and the substrate must fit
together to work.
The increase of the reaction rate of an enzyme-
catalyzed reaction increases with an increase in the When an enzyme binds its substrate, it forms
concentration of an enzyme. Increasing the number an enzyme-substrate complex.
of enzymes or adding more enzymes.
The part of the enzyme where the substrate
binds is called the active site (since that's
where the catalytic “action” happens).

The lock-and-key model suggests that the

substrate is completely complementary in
shape to the active site so that it fits
in 'perfectly' - i.e. the way a key (the substrate)
fits into a lock (the enzyme). There is no
change in the shape of the active site when
the substrate binds.
Protein Structure Intr0duction

The term “protein” originates from the Greek word

proteios, meaning “primary” or “of the first rank”.
The name was adopted by Jon Berzelius in 1838 to
emphasize the importance of this class of molecules.

Quaternary structure: Quaternary structure is the

three-dimensional structure of a protein macromolecule
formed by the aggregation of two or more individual
polypeptide chains.

The sequence in which amino acids are arranged in a

protein is called the primary structure. The linear
sequence of amino acids constitutes a protein's primary
structure. The sequence is written from the amino-
terminal end (the first amino acid) to the carboxyl-
terminal end.
The monomers or building blocks of proteins are known
as amino acids. Amino acids come together during the
process of translation and form peptide bonds with one
another.
Each enzyme typically binds only one substrate.
Enzymes are not consumed during a reaction; instead,
they are available to bind new substrates and catalyze
the same reaction repeatedly.
The tightening of the binding after initial
contact is called induced fit. This brings
chemical groups of the active site into
positions that enhance their ability to catalyze
the chemical reaction. 10.
Activation Energy is the minimum amount of
energy needed to start a chemical reaction. All
chemical reactions need a certain amount of
activation energy to get started.
Get a banana, remove the banana peel,
and then take a bite. Observe the bitten part
of the banana for a few minutes.

The term “protein” originates from the Greek word proteios,

meaning “primary” or “of first rank”

Enzymes are organic or biological catalysts that are

essential to live organisms.
 Questions:

1. What do you observe?

As the banana peels and takes a bite, the
bitten part of the banana becomes brown
as it was exposed to air for a few minutes.

2. Did the bitten part of the banana turn brown?

Yes, bananas turned brown when exposed to air for a

few minutes because Bananas contain the enzyme
polyphenol oxidase, and when the enzyme interacts
with oxygen, it causes a chemical reaction. This
chemical reaction, known as enzymatic browning,
changes the banana's peel and fruit to brown.

3. What caused the browning?

Bananas contain polyphenol oxidase and other iron-

containing chemicals which react with the oxygen in the
air when the cells are cut open. When exposed to the
air, these chemicals react in a process known as
oxidation, turning the fruit brown.