THE I M P O R T A N C E OF A T H O R O U G H

G E O T E C H N I C A L SITE I N V E S T I G A T I O N
A T THE P L A N N I N G S T A G E OF U R B A N
DEVELOPMENT

ANDY FOURIE AND AHMEDI VAWDA

I N T R O D UCTION

The WCRC (Wattville Concerned Residents Committee) is the Civic Associ-

ation of Wattville, an African township about 5km outside the East Rand t o w n
of Benoni. Wattville is typical of m a n y African townships, in that there is a
critical housing shortage resulting in extreme overcrowding, high unemploy-
ment and low levels of income. Recent mechanisms for housing provision have
failed to deliver low cost housing, or failed to make it affordable. Eventually,
the community took a decision at a mass meeting in June 1990 to invade a piece
of uninhabited land on the southern perimeter of Wattville township.
After a brief period of conflict w i t h the white local authority of Benoni, u n d e r
whose jurisdiction this land fell, the residents of Wattville w o n the right to
remain on the land, and the Benoni Council agreed to take joint responsibility
for its development as an area of low-cost housing. W h e n it was agreed that a
Joint Technical Committee should be formed to direct and control the devel-
opment process, Planact was requested by the WCRC to join t h e m on the
committee, in the capacity of legal and technical advisors.
The logistics of this operation, its implications, and long-term ramifications
are not the subject of this paper. What we seek to do here is illustrate the
importance of a proper and thorough geotechnical site investigation at the
planning stage of any urban development. A secondary aspect of this paper is
to illustrate the crucial relationship between this w o r k and the recipient
communities. Success in d e v e l o p m e n t projects, in our view, requires the
involvement of the recipient communities in all steps of the development
process. Such exercises could, at this very early stage of a physical development
programme, begin to demystify technical processes, w h i c h should in the long
run lead to more informed communities. In turn, development w o u l d begin
to take on the m u c h n e e d e d c o m m u n i t y driven orientation.
58 U R B A N F O R U M 3:1, 1992
/
.4o TaPI~TP P3 ffl'P4 ~ TP6 ~ 9 0 2 2 0 0 x
~~r~:,e..,J ~.q/]LJ ~ "'"~ CEJETERY r J~/-/!

, I
38

Figure 1: Tamboville site, showing location of 21 inspection pits

I HOLE No: TP11

Scale t:5::::| 0.00

Dry to slightly moist, dark brown, loose, intact, silty SAND with abundant
1:20
~il 0.40
roots; topsoil/hillwash.

I1
Slightly moist, reddish brown, loose to medium dense, intact, silty SAND
DS1/1 with occasional fine roots; hUlwash/fine colluvium.

........
. . . . . . . 1.60

i
Slightly moist, reddish brown mottled black, loose intact, silty SAND with
minor (+-25%) soft ferruginous concretions; hillwash/fine colluvium.

::: '::".1 2.50

ii
Slightly moist, greyish yellowish brown, loose, intact, silty gravelly SAND.
Gravel occurs as ferruginous concretions and is minor to abundant
(25-50%).
'"=~' 3.20
NOTES:
1) Seepage not encountered.
2) Hole not dug to refusal.
3) Zone between 0,4 - 2,5m may be collapsible.
4) Disturbed sample DS/1 taken at 1,3m.

Figure 2: Profile of inspection pit 1 (see Fig.1 for location)

GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATION 59

BACKGROUND

A l t h o u g h in the Transvaal, soil surveys h a v e been m a n d a t o r y u n d e r Local

G o v e r n m e n t O r d i n a n c e since 1965 (Ordinance N u m b e r 25), this r e q u i r e m e n t
is often not a d h e r e d to. In m a n y instances, developers have been allowed to
build a n d sell h o u s e s w i t h o u t an adequate geotechnical site investigation
h a v i n g been carried out. As a result, m a n y of these houses have experienced
severe cracking and structural d a m a g e w i t h i n a few years after c o m p l e t i o n of
construction. This has often led to a complete b r e a k d o w n in trust b e t w e e n
h o m e d w e l l e r s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s in general, of private sector construction
companies. It is to this e n d that we n e e d n o t only to carry o u t t h o r o u g h
geotechnical site investigations, b u t to keep prospective h o m e d w e l l e r s in-
f o r m e d of the implications of such investigations. In particular, if any p r o b l e m
soils are e n c o u n t e r e d on the site, possible solutions to construction on such
soils can be explained to the c o m m u n i t y .
In the case of the Tamboville d e v e l o p m e n t , the WCRC a p p r o a c h e d Planact,
w h o in t u r n a p p r o a c h e d the Civil Engineering D e p a r t m e n t at Wits University,
to advise on soil conditions at Tamboville, a n d the measures residents could
take to m i n i m i s e d a m a g e to their dwellings. This request came about since
residents were anxious to engage the question of housing. Investigations into
a possible h o u s i n g finance package were u n d e r w a y at the time, a n d b o t h those
w h o could afford m o r e formal housing, as well as those w a n t i n g to construct
low cost dwellings were u n s u r e of the soil conditions in the area. It was, for
example, k n o w n that m a n y of the n e w h o u s i n g projects in the s u r r o u n d i n g
region h a d experienced p r o b l e m s of cracking. This being the case, residents
were concerned that the cause a n d effects of cracking be m i n i m i s e d , w i t h d u e
regard to the associated affordability levels.
At the time the above request was m a d e , the only i n f o r m a t i o n that w a s
available was a contour m a p of the area a n d a very crude description of the
soil conditions at the site. As an example, about 50 per cent of the site was
described as 'red s a n d y soil'. As will be explained later, such a description is
of no use w h a t s o e v e r to a geotechnical engineer, and a far m o r e s t r u c t u r e d a n d
informative description is required to enable rational engineering decisions to
be made. It was therefore agreed b e t w e e n the D e p a r t m e n t a n d the WCRC to
u n d e r t a k e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e geotechnical investigation of the site.

M E T H O D OF SITE I N V E S T I G A T I O N

A n excavator, w h i c h was p r o v i d e d by the Benoni T o w n Council, was u s e d to

excavate 21 inspection pits at the site in question. The location of these pits is
s h o w n in Figure 1, a n d as can be seen, an a t t e m p t was m a d e to distribute the
inspection pits as u n i f o r m l y over the site as possible. The d e p t h to w h i c h the
pits were d u g was g o v e r n e d by either the m a x i m u m reach of the excavator
(about 3.2m), or until refusal (i.e. until the excavator was unable to penetrate
the material at the base of the pit).
60 U R B A N F O R U M 3:1, 1992

I HOLE No: TP161

SITE iNVESTIGATION
)
Slightly moist, greyish dark brown, loose, intact, silty SAND; hillwash / topsoil.

Slightly moist, greyish dark brown, stiff, intact, sandy CLAY; gullywash.

Slightly moist, light grey mottled orange, stif____!shattered

, and slickensided,
slightly gravelly CLAY; gullywash.

NOTES:
1) Seepage not encountered.
2) Machine near refusal at 2,1m.
3) Disturbed sample DS16/1 taken at 1,5m.

Figure 3: Profile of inspection pit 16 (see Fig 1 for location)

/
TP6 2 902 200 x

2/

T•pZOne
9 /._40
TP11

TP17

+ 2 902 600 I TP20o

30

Figure 4: Tamboville site showing zoning according to soil type

GEOTECHNICAL SITE I N V E S T I G A T I O N 61

A consulting engineering geologist profiled each of the inspection pits

according to a standard procedure as described by Jennings, Brink and Wil-
liams (1973). This procedure requires that details be noted of six primary soil
descriptors, namely moisture condition, colour, consistency, structure, soil
type, and origin. Each of these descriptors are dealt with in detail below. It
should be noted that these descriptors are not arbitrary, but that every attempt
is m a d e to standardise them in order to prevent inconsistencies occurring from
one site to another.
As noted above, the procedure requires detailed descriptions of the following:
[] Moisture condition: The importance of this descriptor cannot be overem-
phasised. It has a fundamental influence on the mechanical properties of a
soil, e.g. a soil w h i c h is dry or only slightly wet w h e n examined m a y change
its properties very significantly if it subsequently becomes wetter.
[] Colour: This is a very obvious visible feature, and as such can be useful for
tracing the extent of a particular zone of soil over a site. Since the colour of
a soil m a y change with moisture content, it is important that it should be
judged in the undisturbed state in the inspection pit, as well as after complete
remoulding with water. It is also very important that not only the colour of
the intact soil, but also that of any jointing and fissuring is carefully noted.
Consistency: This term refers to the hardness or denseness of a soil, and is
therefore an indicator of soil strength and stiffness. Different terms are used
for soils which are predominantly clayey from those w h i c h are mainly
granular, and each term that is used has been defined using simple tactile
tests and easily available tools, such as a spade or geological pick.
[] Structure: In the context of site investigation, structure means the presence
or absence of discontinuities within the soil mass. Structure is a vital feature
since it can play a dominant role in controlling the soil behaviour, particu-
larly as regards strength and permeability. This descriptor refers to visible
characteristics such as bedding, fracturing, and fabric (e.g. intact less wea-
thered soil s u r r o u n d e d by a softer matrix of deeply weathered material).
[] Soil type: This descriptor is based primarily on grain size, w h i c h is defined
using conventional civil engineering procedures. The primary importance
of grain size relates to the drainage characteristics of a soil, w h i c h later
govern the rate at which the strength and volume change of a soil respond
to changes in loading. Very few soils consist of single-sized particles, and
descriptions such as 'clayey silt', or 'silty sand' are therefore the norm.
[] Origin: The origin, manner of formation, and subsequent geological history
can all have a very significant influence on the engineering properties of a
particular soil. An accurate evaluation of this descriptor usually requires an
engineering geologist, and at the very least, appropriate geological maps
should be consulted. An attempt should always be m a d e to identify the
stratigraphic unit to which the soil belongs, and it is particularly important
to distinguish between transported soils, residual soils (soils formed in-situ
62 URBAN FORUM 3:1, 1992

from the weathering of rocks), and pedocretes, which are soils which have
become cemented by chemical action.

In addition to the above criteria, it is also essential that any evidence of

seepage from the side of an inspection pit, or accumulation of water at the
base of the pit be noted.
The above procedure may appear cumbersome and somewhat exacting.
However, by using the Tamboville development as an example, the import-
ance and relevance of these descriptors in the choice of appropriate foundation
solutions will be illustrated. Figures 2 and 3 show the profiles of two of the
inspection pits that were recorded at Tamboville using the above procedure.
These two examples were chosen to illustrate two markedly dissimilar soil types
on the site as well as to show how the descriptors help in identifying potential
foundation problems. Referring to these two figures, it can be seen that an attempt
is made to ascribe a particular description to as large a vertical extent of soil as
possible, e.g. in inspection pit 1, the soil between depths 0.4m and 1.6m has been
assigned the same description. Distinct transitions such as those indicated in the
figures do not of course usually occur in n a c r e , and a high degree of skill and
experience is required to decide where to allocate the transition depth.
Using the descriptions from the twenty-one inspection pits, the site was
divided into four zones wherein similar soil profiles were expected to occur.
These zones are indicated in Figure 4. The main characteristics were:
~3 Zone 1" Reddish-brown, loose, silty sand, extending to depths of up to 3m.
GI Zone 2" Light-grey; mottled orange, stiff shattered clay, extending from
about 0.5m depth to 3m depth; overlain with black silty-clayey sand.
D Zone 3" Yellowish, greyish brown, loose, silty and clayey sand, extending to
a m a x i m u m recorded depth of 2.5m.
GI Zone 4" Reddish-brown, loose, silty sand, underlain by both ferricrete and
quartzite, from 0.8-2.0m depth.

LABORATORY TESTS

Before discussing the engineering implications of the various soil zones, it is

necessary to discuss the laboratory tests that were carried out as part of the
Tamboville study, and the significance of the test results.
As can be seen in Figure 2, a so-called 'disturbed' sample was taken at a
depth of approximately 1.3m below ground level. Taking a disturbed sample
consists of digging out about 2kg of soil from the side of the inspection pit, at
the required depth, and sealing the soil in a plastic bag. This soil may then be
used for a range of indicator tests, the results of which are correlated empiri-
cally with expected soilbehaviour. It is unusual to take disturbed samples from
every inspection pit, and the frequency of sampling is very d e p e n d e n t on the
variability of a particular site.
GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATION 63

It m a y sometimes also be expedient to take undisturbed soil samples. This

is effected by carefully cutting a block of soil out of the side of the inspection
pit. This is usually done using a geological pick, or similar instrument, and if
possible a cube with sides of about 200-300ram is excavated. It is imperative
that this block of soil remains intact, and that it is sealed with an impermeable
coating (such as wax) immediately after excavation, to prevent drying out.
These high-quality samples can then be used in the laboratory for carrying out
more sophisticated tests, as described later.

Results of Laboratory Tests

The results and implications of the laboratory tests on disturbed and undis-
turbed samples are discussed separately below.
E3 Tests on disturbed samples: A total of 5 disturbed samples w e r e taken
during the site investigation. The laboratory tests that were carried out on
these samples w e r e particle size distribution tests and the Atterberg Limit
tests. The latter tests are index tests, the results of which have been correlated
with engineering behaviour. The testing procedure will not be discussed
here, and interested readers are referred to Craig (1987) for m o r e details. The
particle size distribution curves are s h o w n in Figure 5, and the Atterberg
Limits in the table below.

Inspection Zone Depth (m) Liquid Placticity

pit # number limit (%) index (%)
2 3 1,2 33 17
3 2 1,4 47 33
15 2 0,5 52 35
16 2 1,5 60 40
21 4 1,0 34 20

Using these results, together with the grading curves, the five soil samples were
classified according to the internationally used Unified Soil Classification
System. The results are summarised below.

Inspection pit # Classification Description (according to U.S.C.S)

2 CL Silty clay, or sandy clay of low plasticity
21 CL Silty clay, or sandy clay of low plasticity
3 CH Inorganic clay of high plasticity
15 CH Inorganic clay of high plasticity
16 CH Inorganic clay of high plasticity
64 URBAN FORUM 3:1, 1992

The results presented in the above tables indicate that all the soil samples had a
significant clay content. Coupled with the Atterberg Limit results, this indicates
that all the soil tested was potentially expansive. The term 'potentially' expansive
has been used since these soils only undergo a change in volume if subjected to a
change in ambient moisture conditions. If these soils are, for example, perma-
nently located beneath the water table they will experience no volume change,
and therefore not be problematic. The implications of these results as regards
suitability for development are discussed in the following section.

100 TP21

60 ~-'~ .""
w
_z

<
~- 20
Z
w
0 I
rr 0 I I I I I I I I
w 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 2O
12_

PARTICLE SIZE (mm)

Figure 5: Particle size distribution curves for five disturbed samples

[] U n d i s t u r b e d samples: Based on the observations made during profiling, it

was decided to excavate an undisturbed soil sample from the side of pit 12, as
it was thought to be representative of soil across the site which appeared to be
potentially collapsible. This sample was used to prepare two laboratory spe-
cimens on which collapse potential tests were carried out. A standard technique
was once again followed, see Schwartz (1985), and based on the test results the
collapse potential of these particular specimens was calculated as 13%. The
engineering implications of these results are discussed below.

Implications of Findings
The laboratory results indicated that two particular problematic soil types
occur on the site in question, n a m e l y potentially expansive, and potentially
collapsible soils. As a result of this observation, two questions immediately
sprang to mind, n a m e l y w h a t was the extent of each of these soil types at the
site in question, and w h a t w e r e the implications of these soils as regards
appropriate foundations?
Taking the first of these issues, the extent of each of the soil types could be
estimated from the observations m a d e in the inspection pits, e.g. referring to
Figure 2, the reference to 'stiff, shattered' is a clear indication of a possibly
GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATI01',I 65

expansive soil. By locating similar descriptions in other pits the likely extent
of this soil type could be estimated, and in fact it was in this w a y that Zone 2
was delineated. As the results of the laboratory tests on disturbed samples were
also known, the whole of Zone 2 was classified as potentially problematic in
terms of damage to structures caused by swelling soil. Similar considerations
were used to delineate the other three zones.
The question of appropriate foundations is m u c h more difficult to answer.
It requires the consideration of m a n y other factors aside from just the soil
conditions, e.g. cost, financing, and availability of materials, amongst others.
Nevertheless, in spite of the foregoing limitations it was possible to provide
advice on potential foundation problems w i t h the particular soil types en-
countered at Tamboville.
Consideration of the laboratory test results described above indicated that
the soil in Zone 2 could b e r e g a r d e d as having a marginal to high swell
potential, with the swell potential increasing towards the southern b o u n d a r y
of Zone 2. Reference to the engineering literature shows that heave (i.e. u p w a r d
movement) of up to 100mm is possible in this soil. Heave of this m a g n i t u d e
w o u l d cause severe d a m a g e to structures not designed to accommodate such
movement. As an example, differential heave (which means different amounts
of heave at different locations), can result in extensive structural damage; doors
and w i n d o w s jam, or do not close, and extensive cracking may occur, event-
ually m a k i n g the structure or house uninhabitable. Structures that are
particularly prone to heave induced d a m a g e are those that have a plain,
unreinforced concrete slab cast directly onto the ground surface, with brick-
w o r k built on this slab. If the underlying soil heaves, the slab is unable to follow
the deformation of the ground, and begins to crack. Different parts of the slab
move more than others, causing cracking of the overlying brickwork.
As mentioned earlier, two potentially problematic soil types occur on the
site in question, expansive soils and collapsible soils. Having dealt briefly with
expansive soils above, it is necessary to provide some information on w h a t a
collapsible soil is. A collapsible soil is defined as any unsaturated soil that
under'goes a radical rearrangement of particles and a great decrease in volume
w h e n its moisture content is markedly increased. As s h o w n by Goldshtein
(1969), there are four main types of wetting that can trigger this collapse of soil,
namely:
O Localised, shallow wetting of a r a n d o m nature caused by water from pi-
pelines or uncontrolled drainage of surface water from construction
activities. Collapse settlement w o u l d be mainly confined to the upper layer
of soil below the wetted zone.
El Intense, deep, localised wetting of soil caused by discharge of effluent, or
irrigation. A sufficiently high flow rate w o u l d cause a continuous rise in the
ground-water level perhaps saturating the entire zone of collapsible soil in
a relatively short space of time (several months to a year). Under these
circumstances the settlement w o u l d be u n e v e n and potentially dangerous.
 66 U R B A N F O R U M 3:1, 1992

1) EXPANSIVE SOILS
The way in which expansion takes place:

(a) When the ground When water (b) When the ground
is DRY, is added is WETTER,
0 0
0 0 o
0 0
0
0

the clay particles the particles move

are close together APART,and the gaps
are filled with water
(a) SWELLING OCCURS.
(expansion)

BEFORE CONSTRUCTION (BUILDING) ~

(b) j, 4 ,~ A, ~t~,A A
, ~,,Y
i i i 'i tt"s i si"~
i
ground , :..~. : . & e , . . ~ z . , ~

- water levelBALANCE EXISTS BETWEEN RAINFALL + EVAPORATION

SOON AFTER CONSTRUCTION EVENTUALLY (oerhaos vests later'

CaACK~--'r --~ . . . . cracks I " ~-~ I

l APATrERI~ ~ I ~Grouna SWellS ~.
A. ~,oR,~s,J
fN .~' A I ~ . ~," below outer walls "~\"-~ "~/] . watt,
r~///'//lf/V'vl//~#f""llll/I Ill/Hi* l#"~,l I~'~l "- UI |%..2UI ~ I U

NO EVAPORATION (c) .Hr~OUSE. SWELLS BELOW

FROM BELOW THE HOUSE ....... CENTRE OF HOUSE
ANOTHER PROBLEM-CAUSED BY ~vVATER HUNGRY' TREES

2
ss163 / . . . . . /I/H/ tl 9

ROOTS REMOVE WATER

'
"'m'~J"2EDGE OF HOUSE SETTLES + CRACKING OCCURS
Figure 6: Explanatory material used in community workshop at Tamboville
GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATION 67

El Slow and relatively uniform rise of the ground-water level under the in-
fluence of water sources outside the collapsible soil area. The settlement
would usually be uniform and gradual.
El Gradual, slow increase of the moisture content of a thick layer of soil,
resulting from changes in the evaporation conditions of the soil layer (e.g.
being covered by a layer of asphalt or a concrete slab).

Collapsible soils result in damage to overlying structures w h e n an area of soil

experiences more collapse than an adjacent area (akin to the differential heave
discussed earlier). The structure is unable to accommodate this movement, and
cracking and associated damage result.
Although the manifestation of problems caused by expansive soils and
collapsible soils is similar, i.e. cracking and other visible structural damage, the
methods for treating these soils or providing adequate foundations is mar-
kedly different, as discussed below.

TECHNIQUES TO LIMIT DAMAGE

Once again expansive and collapsible soils will be dealt with separately.
Conventional techniques for dealing with these soils are discussed first, and
some methods that can be used by residents to minimise potential damage to
their homes is described thereafter.
Specific foundation solutions that have been used in the past are described
below. However it should be noted that these solutions have been developed
for predominantly brick houses. As such, they may be overly conservative for
lower cost structures which by their nature are more flexible and can thus
tolerate more m o v e m e n t than brick houses. They are also, in general, relatively
expensive as will become clear later. Notwithstanding this, it is useful to
consider available solutions before discussing more novel approaches.
Specific measures which may be adopted to limit the damage caused by an
expansive soil profile, and which are related to the degree of potential expan-
siveness include:
El A plain (unreinforced) 100mm concrete slab. This is, however, only suffi-
cient to withstand a heave of less than 5mm, which is caused by the mildest
of expansive clays, otherwise it can result in severe damage to the structure
it is meant to be supporting. All the expansive clay in Zone 2 has a higher
potential expansiveness than this.
O Removal of expansive clay and replacement by good quality fill. This
solution may be possible where the clay is not more than 1.5m deep, and
where its replacement with non-expansive soil is economical. The replace-
ment fill material must be carefully and correctly compacted, and preferably
supervised by an engineer experienced in this type of work.
[3 Reinforced brickwork with joints: This m e t h o d has proved successful where
68 U R B A N F O R U M 3:1, 1992

the predicted differential heave has been estimated at less than 15mm. The
amount of reinforcement in the brickwork is determined by engineering
calculation. This method is, however, not inexpensive, as relatively sophis-
ticated bricklaying skills are required, and professional supervision is
essential.
[] Piled foundations: This has been the most widely used and successful method
where the predicted heave is greater than 25mm, and is the preferred method
where potential heave exceeds 100mm. Piled foundations tend, however, to be
expensive, and the needed equipment makes it more suitable for schemes
where the cost can be shared between a group of houses.
[] Stiffened slab construction: This is a relatively n e w construction method,
and appears to be suitable for situations w h e r e the differential heave is not
more than 90mm. In practice, joints are incorporated in the design of the
superstructure to allow for potential movement. The utilisation of profes-
sional e n g i n e e r i n g services w o u l d be a d v i s a b l e in the d e s i g n a n d
construction supervision of such structures.

The available solutions described above increase progressively in cost as the

amount of potential heave increases. Typical costs for a 60m 2 house w o u l d be
approximately R2200 for a simply reinforced, 100mm thick concrete slab, and
at least R4600 for a stiffened slab with reinforced lateral beams, (these costs are
as if 1991). With very few exceptions, residents were unable to afford these
more conventional (and expensive) foundation solutions. Typically, potential
home-builders were budgetting about R4000 (in 1991 terms) for construction
materials for an entire house. Therefore, those of the above techniques that
w o u l d be applicable to the highly expansive clay encountered on the Tambo-
ville site w o u l d clearly be unaffordable for most residents.
A possible solution which was mooted for Tamboville was the use of
so-called 'pre-wetting'. To explain this technique, it is useful to consider the
conditions u n d e r w h i c h an expansive soil will undergo heave. Figure 6, w h i c h
was used in a community w o r k s h o p held in Tamboville to explain the impli-
cations of the site investigation to residents, shows schematically h o w an
expansive soil wets up and undergoes heave. Prior to development of a site
the evaporation and rainfall reach a state of equilibrium (which m a y fluctuate
with the seasons). By constructing an impermeable covering, such as a floor
slab, this equilibrium is disturbed, and while the infiltration remains the same
the evaporation from the soil below the slab is reduced. Over time there is a
migration of water beneath the covered area (see Figure 6b), resulting firstly
in heave of the soil below the walls and associated "dishing' of the slab,
followed (perhaps years later) by heave of the soil below the centre of the slab
as Imigration of the wetting front towards the centre of the house continues.
Tl~is leads to 'doming" of the slab and, as explained earlier, if the slab is unable
to accommodate this movement, cracking of the slab and the brickwork above
it will occur.
G E O T E C H N I C A L SITE I N V E S T I G A T I O N 69

> 100
E~
9
..C
Z3 80 I Heave of
iPre-wetted area ,///~
I / Natural heave curve
30 60
I // for house in vicinity
E I / of flooded area
E 40 I /
0 I~ / Area covered by concrete slab
E /
9
20 I
,.Area flooded

o, I I I I I
5O0 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Days from staff of flooding

Figure 7: Illustration of the benefits of p r e - w e t t i n g (after Bright a n d d e Wet, 1965)

Pre-wetting simply consists of i n t r o d u c i n g water into the potentially expan-

sive soil, a n d allowing as m u c h heave as possible to take place before
construction begins. Figure 7, w h i c h is r e p r o d u c e d from Blight a n d de Wet
(1965), shows h o w pre-wetting can accelerate the process of soil heave such
that very little post-construction m o v e m e n t will occur. A test area was flooded
for a period of 96 days, d u r i n g w h i c h time over 90 per cent of the total surface
heave took place. I m m e d i a t e l y thereafter, the area was covered w i t h a concrete
slab, and g r o u n d m o v e m e n t observations were continued. As can be seen,
there was a slight (and in effect negligible) settlement of the g r o u n d after
construction of the slab. The d a s h e d line in Figure 7 s h o w s the m e a s u r e d
m o v e m e n t of a nearby house. In this case the m a x i m u m heave only occurred
some five a n d a half years after the c o m m e n c e m e n t of flooding, thus illustrat-
ing the benefits to be gained by pre-wetting a site.
At Tamboville, a resident w h o was busy w i t h the excavation of f o u n d a t i o n
trenches agreed to assist w i t h an investigation of the merits of pre-wetting. A
series of 60ram diameter holes were h a n d - a u g e r e d to a d e p t h of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1.5m, at spacings of about 2m. These holes were filled w i t h coarse aggregate
to prevent t h e m swelling closed w h e n the soil was w e t t e d up. The holes were
filled with water (about 15 litres) twice a d a y for three weeks. Four s u r v e y pegs
were installed at positions w i t h i n the layout of the house, a n d the height of
these pegs was m e a s u r e d at w e e k l y intervals. It was f o u n d that w i t h i n three
weeks, b e t w e e n 30 a n d 3 5 m m heave h a d occurred at all four locations, w i t h at
least 80% of this m o v e m e n t h a p p e n i n g in the first week. The effectiveness of
the pre-wetting was further checked by c o m p a r i n g the moisture content of soil
adjacent to the auger holes w i t h that situated some distance away. T w o soil
samples were taken from positions m i d w a y b e t w e e n auger holes, a n d a further
two were taken at locations about ten metres a w a y from the house. The average
moisture content of the samples from w i t h i n the house b o u n d a r i e s w a s 21.7
70 U R B A N F O R U M 3:1, 1992

per cent, whilst that from the outside samples was 18.2 per cent, thus confirm-
ing that the soil below the house had been effectively wetted.
It is more difficult to quantify the benefits of pre-wetting. As an example, it
would probably take four or five years for heave (and with it the resulting
damage) to develop fully below a house where no pre-wetting had been
undertaken (see Figure 7). It was also noted at TamboviUe that construction
practices were were inferior in some instances, e.g. very poor quality concrete was
being prepared for foundation construction. The potential damage from a heav-
ing soil can only be exacerbated by such low-quality foundation preparation.
With pre-wetting offering such an effective solution to the problem of
swelling soils, an obvious question is w h y it has not been used more exten-
sively to date. Firstly, it should be emphasised that it is not a panacea, and
should be used in conjunction with sound, accepted construction practices,
requiring high-quality supervision. Secondly, it can be very time consuming.
In general, a property developer will not want to wait for two to three months
before starting construction on a development. Nevertheless, by proper plan-
ning and forethought, pre-wetting can be incorporated into the construction
schedule, and as shown here, can have significant benefits.
Other simple ways of minimising damage caused by expansive clays include:
El Surrounding the building with paving that is as impermeable as possible
for a width of about 2m.
El Ensuring the ground slope is such that water does not p o n d against the
structure, but drains away from it.
El Not planting flower beds directly against the house, since in watering these
beds the soil beneath the house will become saturated.
El Providing all below-ground pipe joints with flexible couplings. If some
m o v e m e n t of the soil does occur, this will prevent the joints from breaking
and further saturating the soil.

During the course of three workshops, residents were informed of the advisa-
bility of adopting as many of these measures as feasible, and to date a n u m b e r
of them appear to be acting on some of these suggestions. It is too soon to
determine whether these measures are in fact proving efficacious but they do
at least provide simple, inexpensive methods whereby residents are able to
minimise the potential damage to their homes.
When building on collapsible soils, it is always advisable to attempt to
improve the founding conditions before construction begins. It is far more
expensive to try and rehabilitate a structure which has been built on collapsible
soil and is showing signs of structural distress, than to pre-treat the site.
Techniques that are usually used to treat collapsible soils include:
O Slight moistening of the soil, and compaction using either extra heavy
impact or vibrating rollers, if the collapsible soil is less than 1.5 metres deep.
As an example, Solesbury and Walker (1991) report the successful use of an
GEOTECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATION 71

impact roller to pre-treat an area of 126Ha which was underlain by collap-

sible soils. The advantage of this type of approach is that the unit cost of
treatment is relatively low, compared with that homeowners would incur
trying to treat their own particular stands separately, e.g. in this case the cost
of impact rolling worked out at R9-00/m 2 for a 60m 2 house size.
[3 Removal of the collapsible soil, and replacement with well compacted
backfill. This approach is useful if the depth of collapsible soil is between
about 1.5 and 10 metres deep. It is very important that the process of
compaction of the backfill is supervised, preferably by a professional engin-
eer, as the consequences of poor compaction could be even worse than had
this technique not been applied at all.

Treatment of the collapsible soil zones by means of impact rolling was not
feasible at Tamboville, since many properties had already been occupied, and
treatment would be piecemeal, thus making it prohibitively expensive. Ac-
cordingly, a much simpler, labour intensive procedure was suggested, and has
already been adopted by some homebuilders. It consists of digging the tren-
ches for the foundations 0.5 of a metre deeper than the final level of the
foundation, and then replacing this soil with 15cm thick layers of well com-
pacted soil. It is imperative that the soil is prepared at the correct moisture
content prior to compaction, and it w o u l d of course be preferable if the
compaction process was supervised by an engineer. Once again, cost consider-
ations precluded this at Tamboville.

CONCLUSIONS

The work reported in this paper has shown the benefits of carrying out a
thorough geotechnical site investigation at the planning stage of any urban
development, i.e. prior to the start of any building activity. To summarise the
benefits of this approach include:
[3 Members of the community can be informed of potentially problematic soils
in the area of their own particular sites.
[3 Precautions to minimise damage that could be caused by these soils could
also be communicated at this stage. At least homedwellers would be alerted
to potential problems (and the associated costs) from the outset, thus enab-
ling them to make informed decisions regarding the most appropriate
foundation system for their homes.
The possibility of a group of neighbours agreeing to treat a large area of soil
on a once-off basis, and sharing the cost of the required treatment process
(e.g. the impact rolling of a site located on collapsible soil).
A reduction in maintenance costs, as a result of problematic soils being
identified prior to construction.
72 URBAN FORUM 3:1, 1992

In the light of the foregoing, it cannot be emphasised too strongly that property
developers not undertake any housebuilding without first performing a rig-
ourous geotechnical investigation of the proposed site.

REFERENCES
Blight, G.E., and De Wet, J.A. (1965). The acceleration of heave by flooding.
Moisture equilibria and moisture changes in soils beneath covered areas.
Butterworths, Australia.
Craig, R.F. (1987). Soil Mechanics. 4th Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK)
Goldschtein, M.N. (1969). Principles of building design on soils prone to
slump-type settlement owing to wetting. Osnovaniya Fundamenty i Mek-
hanika Bruntov, No.6, pp 25-27.
Jennings, J.E., Brink, A.B.A. and Williams, A.A.B. (1973). Revised guide to soil
profiling for Civil Engineering purposes in South Africa. Transactions
SAICE, Vol. 15.
Schwartz, K. (1985). Collapsible soils. Transactions SAICE, Vol.27, No.7, pp
379-394.
Solesbury, F.W., and Walker, D.G. (1991). The impact rolling of a large housing
site in Boksburg. Proc. 10th African Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Maseru, September 1991, pp 393-400.