Basics

What is logging?
The continuous depth related measurement, recording and plotting of
geophysical parameters along a borehole is called Wireline geophysical
well logging, conveniently shortened to Well-logging or Logging.

What is a log?
The continuous depth related record of geophysical parameters of and
around a borehole is a Wireline geophysical well log, conveniently
shortened to well log.
What are logruns?
When a log is made it is said to be ‘run’. A log run is typically made at the
end of each drilling phase, i.e., at the end of the drilling and before casing is
put in the hole.

What is an openhole?
An openhole indicates that the formation forms the wall of a well, as opposed
to ‘cased hole’ in which tube of metal casing lines the well.
 What is an ideal logging condition?

Ideal logging condition means:

 Undisturbed formation environment.

 Motionless logging tool for each individual measurement &

 A sensor of zero dimensions measuring a point sample.

 Historical trends of development of Well-Logging
First Phase (1925-1945):

The first 20 years saw the introduction and gradual worldwide acceptance
of the so called ES (Electrical Survey) Logs. These logs were run with
simple downhole tools and, while quite repeatable, were often difficult to
interpret.
Second Phase (1945-1970):

This was a major tool development era, made possible by the advent of
electronics suitable for downhole use.
Focused electrical devices were introduced, having good bed resolution
and various depths of penetration.
A variety of acoustic and nuclear tools were developed to provide
porosity and lithology information.
There was a progression through second and even third generation
tools of increasing capability and accuracy.
Simultaneously much laboratory and theoretical work was done to
place log interpretation on a sound, though largely empirical basis.
Third and current phase (1970- ...):

A log processing era. With the advent of computers, it has become possible
to analyse in much greater detail the wealth of data sent uphole by the
logging tools.
Log processing centers, providing sophisticated interpretation of digitised
logs transmitted by telephone and satellite, have been set up by service
companies in strategic locations.
Logging trucks have been fitted with computers that permit computation of
quick-look logs at the wellsite.
Also, logging tools have been combined to the point that a full set of logs
can be obtained on a single run.

(Courtesy: Modern open-hole log interpretation-by Dewan, John T, 1983,

Penn Well, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.)
 A brief history of Wireline Logging
Concept of Wireline logging was evolved by Schlumberger brothers-
Conard and Marcel Schlumberger in 1927.

First resistivity survey was carried out on Sept. 5, 1927 by H.G.Doll in the
Pechelbron oilfield in France.

Self Potential (SP) log was introduced in 1931.

Photographic recording of logs was introduced in 1936.

The gamma ray (GR) log was introduced in 1941.

Micro-logs were introduced in early 50’s.

The latero log was introduced in 1951.

The three electrode dipmeter was introduced in mid 50’s.

Sonic log was introduced in late 50’s.

The sidewall neutron tool (SNP) for the measurement of porosity was
introduced in 1962. This was followed by CNL in 1970.

Dual induction log (DIL) was introduced in 1963.

Formation Density Log (FDC) was introduced in 1964. This was followed
by litho density tool (LDT) in 1981.

In 1990’s there has been tremendous advancement in the field of logging.
During this period, imaging tools were introduced
 General characteristics of a borehole

An average depth of about 6,000 ft but it may be anywhere between

1,000 and 20,000 ft.

An average diameter of about 9//. But, it can be between 5//-15//.

A deviation from vertical that is usually only a few degrees on land but
typically 20-400 offshore.
A bottom-hole temperature that averages about 1500 F but may be
between 1000-3500 F.

A mud salinity averaging about 10,000 ppm but it can vary between
3,000 – 200,000 ppm; occasionally the mud may be oil based.

A mud weight averaging about 11 lb/gal but it can vary from 9-16 lb/gal.
A bottom-hole pressure averaging perhaps 3,000 psi but it can be as low
as 500 and as high as 15,000 psi.

A sheath of mud cake on all permeable formations that averages about

0.5// in thickness but may be as little as 0.1// and as much as 1//.

An invaded zone extending a few inches to a few feet from the borehole in
which much of the original pore fluid has been displaced by drilling fluids.

Note: From this challenging environment the logging engineer is supposed

to derive accurate information about the state of the formations as they
were prior to any drilling disturbance.
How formation pressure is related to hydrostatic
pressure and the lithostatic pressure in a typical oilfield?

Formation pressure is the pressure under which the subsurface formation

fluids and gases are confined.

Hydrostatic pressure for a given well is the force experienced per unit area
at the bottom of the well due to a static vertical column of water equal in
height to that of the depth of the well.
The pressure of the drilling mud is hydrostatic and depends only on the depth of a
well that is the height of the mud column and the mud density.

Lithostatic pressure is the weight of a static lithological column of height equal to

the borehole depth having unit cross sectional area.

For a typical oilfield well, the formation fluid pressure varies between the hydrostatic
(fluid) and the lithostatic (rock) gradient.
What is meant by ‘overpressure’?

This is the excess pressure of the formation fluid over the normal pressure
expected at a given depth.

While drilling operation goes on continuous pressure monitoring is a must.

If not controlled at the right moment it may lead to well blow out.

Overpressure is countered by increasing the density of mud.

 What is mudcake?
Mud is circulated into the borehole under pressure which is usually higher
than the formation pressure.

Formations act as filters through which mud filtrate invades into the
formations by flushing the formation fluid.

Mud sticks to the wall of the well forming a thick coating called mudcake.
For porous as well as permeable formations like sands, mudcake thickness is
greater than that of porous and less permeable(or, impermeable) formations like
shale.

Mud cake thickness is least for non porous and impermeable formations like
massive limestones.

Thus measurement of mudcake thickness gives us a means to distinguish

permeable zones from impermeable zones.
 Few Terms:
Hydrostatic Pressure
Lithostatic Pressure
Formation Pressure
Pressure Gradient
Over Pressure
Invasion
Mudcake
Mud filtrate
Flushed zone
Transition zone
Invaded zone
Uninvaded zone
Formation Temperature
Borehole Temperature
How ‘Depth of investigation’ and‘ Minimum bed resolution’
is related?
Invasion of mud filtrate into the formations and the flushing of the original
formation fluid disturb the formation characteristics in the immediate vicinity
of the borehole wall the way it used to be before being drilled.
The challenge before the logging engineers is to understand the formation
characteristics as if drilling has not been done.
To understand the lateral changes in the formation characteristics, physical
properties should be monitored at different depths (or lateral distances).
Thus we need to monitor physical properties at shallow, middle and deeper
ranges from the axis of the borehole.
Accordingly, tools are available having different depths of investigation. This
enables the observer to understand a pattern of lateral change in physical
properties.

Usually, the precision of a tool is measured by its ability to identify beds of

minimum thickness. This is what is called ‘Minimum bed resolution’. Tools
having higher depths of investigation are usually poor in minimum bed
resolution whereas shallower information monitoring tools are having higher
‘Minimum bed resolution’ capacity.
 Symbols:

Rw, Connate water Resistivity

Ro, Resistivity of porous rock at 100% connate water saturation
Rm, Resistivity of the mud
Rmc, Resistivity of the mud cake
Rmf, Resistivity of the mud filtrate
Rxo, Resistivity of the flushed zone
Ri, Resistivity of the invaded zone
Rt, True resistivity of the formation beyond the zone of invasion
Rs, Resistivity of the adjacent bed(here shale)
Sxo, Water saturation of the flushed zone
Si, Water saturation of the invaded zone
Sw, Formation water saturation
d, Hole diameter
Di, Diameter of the invaded zone
 Water

Rw

Water + Rock

Ro

Water + Rock + Oil

Rt

Iw > Io>It

Rw < Ro<Rt
 Archie Relation
(The thread of its arguments)
If Sw=1, Rt=Ro
(All water in the pores)
For, Sw=0, Rt= ∞
(All oil in the pores) (As both oil and rock matrix are insulators)
From the above boundary conditions, an equation of the following type
can be framed:

Rt = Ro / Swn
Where, n, a constant, termed as the saturation exponent
= F.Rw / Swn
(R o ∞ Rw is a must because only the connate water conducts and to
replace the sign of proportionality, we need to introduce a constant.
So,
R o = F. Rw, where, F is formation factor which is related to porosity in
the following manner:
F = a/øm, where, a is cementation factor & m is cementation exponent.
F = 1/ø2 , for limestones
F = 0.81/ø2, for sandstones)