Basic Well-Log Interpretation: W T 1 N SH

Chapter 12
Basic Well-Log Interpretation
INTRODUCTION
A new era of well-log interpretation began when Archie (in 1942) published his
equation for the quantitative evaluation of resistivity well logs. A correction
for the influence of shale, Vsh (volume of shale, %), is added as a reminder that
the terms within the equation should have corrections for the amount of shale
in the zones of interest (water zones or hydrocarbon zones).

FRw 1=n
Sw 5 2 Vsh ð12:1Þ
Rt
This text, and the accompanying computer program, has been organized to
follow the logical sequence for determination of the parameters that make up
Eq. (12.1). Therefore, it begins with the self-potential log (SP log) that is used
to determine the formation water resistivity (Rw), the shale content (Vsh), and
indications of lithology and the original sedimentary environment. Next, the
gamma ray log (GR log) is introduced because of its use in characterization of
lithology and shale content. The porosity logs (acoustic and density/neutron)
follow for determination of the formation resistivity factor (F), lithology, and
the presence of gas. The mini log (16 in normal) and the two focused micro-
logs (microlatero and proximity) are considered for calculations of porosity,
formation water saturation, and the delineation of porous zone boundaries
(and hence thickness of the formation of interest). These data, together with
indication of the state of wettability of the formation, are used to select the
value of the saturation exponent (n).
The planet Earth is a continually changing restless body. However, most
of the changes are so slow that they are imperceptible during the ordinary
life span of humans. Forces within the planet raise mountains in regions that
were once flat plains while the relentless processes of erosion reduce moun-
tains to plains, depositing the fine production of erosion in low areas and
subsiding zones that we recognize as sedimentary basins. Erosion produces
much of the direct evidence that internal forces have been operating through-
out geologic time. Interior forces acting on a global scale are very slow,
changing the geography of the planet by moving the continental masses
Petrophysics
Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 803
804 Petrophysics
around. Mountain-range building, erosion, and plate tectonics are slow acting
events that are not obvious unless they are closely examined. Some cataclys-
mic events, however, make rapid changes that demonstrate the tremendous
forces acting on the surface earth.
Volcanic eruptions are capable of building a mountain in a few years and
regional movements associated with earthquakes can produce scarps instan-
taneously; and the gradual movement of the western coastal area of California
in a northerly direction with respect to the continent as slippage occurs along
the San Andreas fault is clearly evident by the dislocation of surface features
such as highways and streams.
The motions of the earth’s crust deform and break layers of sediments
that were originally deposited in horizontal attitudes, leading to folding,
faulting, and production of steeply dipping sedimentary structures. Some of
this kneading of the sedimentary layers produces stratigraphic and structural
porous traps that are sealed by other impermeable layers of sediments, pre-
venting further migration of the hydrocarbons. The gravitational field and
capillary phenomena produce a saturation gradient of fluids within the trap
due to the differences in density among gas, oil, and water.
Structural traps develop from folding, faulting, and intrusion of salt and
igneous rocks. Stratigraphic traps develop from tilting and exposure of a
porous bed to the surface where erosion removes part of the structure, and
later deposition of impermeable formation on top produces a seal at the top
that is known as an unconformity. Accumulation of oil originating from a
source rock generally takes place after formation of the trap. Migration of oil
into a structure that is exposed to the surface results in evaporation of the
less dense components, polymerization of polar compounds in the crude oil
by oxygen, and decomposition of paraffinic components by bacteria; the
combination of processes leads to the development of viscous crude oil,
known as heavy oil (API gravity ,20 , viscosity ,10,000 cP) or a bitumen
(viscosity .10,000 cP). A second type of structural trap is formed by a
facies change, such as a pinch-out, when the porous formation gradually
changes to an impermeable structure. These are common in (1) deltaic envir-
onments where changes from sand to shale to carbonate as a function of
depth occur frequently, (2) alluvial structures that are produced by meander-
ing streams, and (3) eolian deposits that change from one type of sediment
to another as wind currents shift, changing the source and particle size of the
sediments.
The complete discussions of the genesis or oil and origin of sedimentary
structures are extensive subjects that are vital to a complete understanding of
well-log interpretation.
There are several attributes of hydrocarbon zones that are very important
to well-log interpretation: (1) the free water level (FWL) occurs at a capillary
pressure, (Pc), equal to zero; (2) the oilwater contact (OWC) occurs above
the FWL in a water-wet reservoir; (3) in an oil-wet reservoir, the FWL and
Chapter | 12 Basic Well-Log Interpretation 805
the wateroil contact occur at the same location; (4) the water saturation at
which residual oil occurs is slightly above the OWC (this is the limiting satu-
ration for oil production in the reservoir; (5) the irreducible water saturation
(Swi) occurs at a point where the capillary pressure continually rises without
further displacement of water; and (6) the connate water saturation (water
born with the oil), which is established at the time of oil accumulation, may
be greater than or equal to the irreducible water saturation, but the connate
water saturation cannot be less than Swi.
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
The temperature in the subsurface increases with depth in accordance with
the local geothermal gradient and the mean annual surface temperature
of the region. The relationship is linear, except where abnormally high-
temperature zones are encountered due to unique geological strata that cause
this effect.
The average geothermal gradient is an increase in temperature (1.0 F/100 ft
of depth). When other information is not available for calculation of the
local geothermal gradient, a very good estimation of the temperature of
the subsurface formation is expressed as:

D
Tfor 5 Tsur 1 GG ð FÞ ð12:2Þ
100
The temperature of the formation is required for interpretation of most
logs. If the bottom hole temperature (BHT) is given on the well log, use it
and the mean surface temperature of the region (6080 F) to determine the
geothermal gradient, GG. If the BHT is not given on the well log, use the
average geothermal gradient and the mean surface temperature to estimate
the temperature of the zone of interest.
SELF-POTENTIAL LOG
The SP log records the electrical potentials (millivolts) that develop in the
borehole because of the presence of a conductive drilling mud and the con-
trasting formation water conductivity. The voltage between an electrode
moving in the borehole and a surface reference electrode is recorded as the
SP log (Figure 12.1). Shales are very similar; thus, they exhibit a very con-
stant low voltage, which is defined as the shale line (the dashed line on the
right side). Examination of the SP log in Figure 12.1, from the top, shows a
large deep deflection to the left that indicates a clean sand formation. The
top and bottom bed boundaries occur at the points where the deflection
begins at the top and ends at another shale bed. The following small deflec-
tion (at 4,820 ft) to the left results from a limestone between the shale beds;
the limestone also exhibits high resistivity. Beginning at 4,850 ft, a shaley
water sand is indicated by a shallow deflection to the left.
806 Petrophysics
Spontaneous
Resistivity Resistivity
Potential Depth
Ohm-m Ohm-m
Millimeters
16 in. Normal Lateral
20 AM = 18 in. AO = 18 ft – 8 in.
0 100
- + 0 100
84 in. Normal
0 AM = 64 in. 100
4,700
4,800
4,900
FIGURE 12.1 Behavior of the SP log, mini log, and microlaterolog.

The SP is a measure of the mud resistivity adjacent to the porous forma-

tion, but the complete circuit (the static self-potential)) is the total potential
that the tool will measure if it is held in a static position adjacent to the for-
mation; the SSP is the sum of contributions of resistances from the sand,
shale, and mud:
SSP 5 Iðrsd 1 rsh 1 rm Þ ð12:3Þ
Referring to Figure 12.1, in very thick, clean (no shale), the SP will give
a value that can be considered equal to the SSP, which is denoted by a
dashed line on the left side of the SP log.
The potential is proportional to the two solutions (borehole mud fluid and
formation water) and is expressed by:

Rmf
Esh 5 259:1 log ð12:4Þ
Rw
This is the SSP that can be expressed to include the formation tempera-
ture and the equivalent resistivity of the formation fluid:

Rmf
SSP 5 2 ð60 1 0:133Tf Þlog ð12:5Þ
Rwe
0 1 0 1
R SSP
log@
we A
5@ A5 1y
Rmfz 60 1 0:133Tz
ð12:6Þ
Rwe y
5 10
Rmfz
The equivalent water resistivity (Rwe) is equal to the true formation

water resistivity (RwSP) determined from the SP log when Rwe is greater
than 0.08 (Figure 12.2). Where Rwe is less than 0.08, charts for correction
of the equivalent water resistivity to the true formation water resistivity can
be used; however, the equation relating the two values is presented as
Eq. (12.7):
If Rwe g0:08; Rw SP 5 Rwe
If Rwe !0:08; Rwe must be corrected
ð12:7Þ
Rwe 1 0:131 3 10½1=logðTf =19:9Þ 22
Rw SP 5
20:5Rwe 1 10½0:426=logðTf =50:8Þ
The SSP assumes a clean, non-shaley permeable sand, where the only
factor developing the SSP is the differential mobility of the ions in the for-
mation waters (formation water and mud fluid). Shale mixed in the sand
(or clay) reduces the SP by an amount that is proportional to the percentage
of shale in the bed. Using the clean sand as the SSP, the following relation
808 Petrophysics
10
R
Rw
w =
1 R
we
0.1
Rw
Rwe
0.1 1 10
Na+ Concentration
FIGURE 12.2 Devitation of water resistivity at values less than 0.08 ohm-meters.
was developed to measure the volume of shale (or the fractional percentage)
of shale in the bed (Vsh).
Thus, the SP log is used to determine the thickness of the formation of
interest (DELHsp), the true resistivity of the formation water that, in turn, is
used in Archie’s equation (Eq. (12.1)), and the percentage of shale that is
used for corrections to other log values.
GAMMA RAY LOG

Gamma rays of sufficient intensity to be easily detected are emitted by three
elements that accumulate principally in clays. These common elements are
potassium, thorium, and uranium. The gamma rays emitted by these three
form the basis of the natural gamma ray well log. Shales are composed of
about 60 clay minerals mixed with other clastic materials and sometimes
organic matter. Thus, the shales emit much more gamma rays than do sands,
limestones, and anhydrites. Carbonates result from the deposition of marine
organisms, and because living bodies tend to eliminate radioactive elements,
the limestones have very little, if any, radioactivity. Dolomites usually
exhibit a small amount of radioactivity because they are formed with perco-
lating waters that contain small amounts of radioactive nuclei as cations.
Clean quartz sands (no clay or shale content) have no radioactivity because
retention of the radioactive elements is a function of the cation exchange
capacity of the sediments, and crystalline quartz sands have no cation
exchange capacity. Therefore, the GR log basically distinguishes between
shales and other types of formations.
The GR log is recorded so that the curve deflects to the right as the radio-
activity increases, and thus the curve is very similar to the SP log. The GR log
has many advantages over the SP log because it can be recorded in open holes
with any type of fluid in the hole, or in cased wells. The gamma rays are
attenuated to some degree by the cement and steel casing, but the penetrating
power is so high that sufficient energy remains to allow unambiguous detec-
tion. The log is used where the SP log cannot be employed, such as in bore-
holes filled with nonconductive muds, air-filled holes, cased holes, and when
the mud filtrate resistivity is almost equal to the resistivity of the formation
water. Used alone with a casing collar locator, the GR log permits direct corre-
lation of depth measurements with open-hole logs. This is used to ensure
accurate depth control for cased-hole wireline services, such as perforating,
formation testing, fracturing, location of leaks, channeling behind casing, and
many other applications where a small amount of radioactive element can be
added to a fluid for subsequent detection downhole.
The API unit is adopted for standard calibration of the GR logs, where
one API unit represents about 0.07 μg of radium equivalent per ton of forma-
tion. A test pit is maintained at the University of Houston that contains a
standard radioactive cement sandwiched between two nonradioactive cements.
The API unit is defined as 1/200 of the difference in deflection between the two
types of cements. The average mid-continent shale will record at about 100
units.
Shales are distinguished from other formations by their relatively high
deflection to the right on the log, just as the SP log responds to shale beds
by deflection to the right. The GR log, which can be run with any other type
of log, is recorded on the left of Figure 12.3 with the compensated densilog
survey and caliper log on the right. At a depth of 5,500 ft, at the top to
5,508 ft, indicates a shale bed followed by a sand bed containing shale
extending to 5,632 ft; this is followed by another porous zone between 5,638
and 5,656 ft. The strong deflections to the right at 5,5705,584 ft and again
at 5,6215,633 ft indicate 100% shale beds.
One of the important uses of the GR log is the evaluation of the fraction
of shale in porous formations. The fraction of shale present in the formation
is required for corrections of the porosity logs for quantitative evaluation of
formation water saturation using Archie’s equation.
The gamma ray shale index is defined as:
GRz 2 GRcs
IGR 5 ð12:8Þ
GRsh 2 GRcs
The IGR is empirically correlated to the fraction of shale in formations.
The linear scaling provides an upper limit of shale content in any formation
where Vsh 5 IGR. Equation (12.9) is used for analyses of pre-Tertiary rocks
and is applicable to highly consolidated Mesozoic rock formations, and
Eq. (12.10) is used for Tertiary clastics (unconsolidated sands).
Vsh 5 0:33ð2ð2:0IGR Þ 21Þ ð12:9Þ
Vsh 5 0:083ð2ð3:7IGR Þ 21Þ ð12:10Þ

810 Petrophysics
Gamma Ray & Caliper Bulk density

Depth
grams/cc
Correction Correction
API UNITS
⫺0.5 0 ⫹0.5
0 100
2.0 2.5 3.0

Hole size -
inches
6 16
5 in. =100 ft
5,600
5,700
FIGURE 12.3 Gamma ray and bulk density logs.

ACOUSTIC LOG
The acoustic log was introduced in boreholes to make measurements similar
to those that had been developed for seismic exploration. Acoustic data
were soon found to be valuable for the determination of porosity
and lithology correlation. Therefore, it soon became a standard formation
evaluation tool.
An acoustic pulse signal (20 kHz) is transmitted into the formation and the
time required for the signal to arrive at a receiver at a specific distance from
the transmitter is recorded as Δt (the travel, or transit, time in μs/ft). The
recordings in the borehole are generally within 40200 μs/ft. This transit time
is a function of the density of the formation and its elastic properties, and thus
contains information about the porosity (as a function of the density) and
lithology (a function of the elasticity).
The relationship defining the porosity in terms of transit times is quite
accurate for a broad range of conditions. The equation expresses porosity in
terms of the recorded transit times, with correction for the degree of compac-
tion of the formation (Cp) and Vsh.

Δtz 2 Δtm 100 Δtsh 2 Δtm
φac 5 2 Vsh ð12:11Þ
Δtf 2 Δtm Cp Δtf 2 Δtm
The fluid transit time, Δtf, for 20% NaCl is 189 μs/ft and for pure water
218 μs/ft. Oil has a general value of 238 μs/ft and methane has a very
high value equal to 626 μs/ft. Values for some of the types of matrices
are as follows: unconsolidated sands 5 58.8, consolidated sands 5 52.6,
limestone 5 47.6, dolomite 5 43.5, and shale 5 167 μs/ft. Of course, these
are average values and the matrix transit time may vary from one area to
another.
The shale compaction factor (Cp) is estimated as 100.0/Δtsh.
In general, the equations for oil and gas zones are as follows:
Oil zone: Δtf 5 190ð1 2 Sor Þ 1 238½1:0 2 ð1 2 Sor Þ ð12:12Þ
Gas zone: Δtf 5 190ð1 2 Sgr Þ 1 626½1:0 2 ð1 2 Sgr Þ ð12:13Þ
DENSITY LOG
The density log is based on gamma ray scattering as a function of the bulk
density of the irradiated matrix. The bulk density is the overall density of the
matrix and the fluids (water, oil, gas) within the pores. A gamma ray source
irradiates a stream of gamma rays into the formation, some of which are
adsorbed, some passed on through the matrix, and some scattered. The
812 Petrophysics
ability of the matrix to attenuate the gamma rays is recorded as the intensity
of scattered gamma rays arriving at two fixed distances from the gamma ray
source. Bulk density is determined by a correlation between the gamma ray
intensity at the detectors and data used for calibration of the tool. The
gamma ray intensity arriving at the detectors is an inverse function of the
bulk density.
The density log tool is sometimes referred to as a compensated density
log that measures the matrix bulk density with compensation for effects due
to the thickness of the mud cake and borehole irregularities. The recorded
log has a linear scale of bulk density (g/cm3). A second curve is included
that shows the degree of compensation that was applied, and a caliper log is
included with the density log survey (Figure 12.2).
The total density (bulk density) of the formation is an average of densi-
ties of the matrix and fluids in the pores of the mud-fluid flushed zone, and
the porosity is affected by the presence of shale. The density of shale varies
between 2.20 and 2.85 g/cm3, depending on the types of clay minerals in the
shale.
The density log is used to estimate the effective porosity of shaley sands,
assuming the shale density is approximately 2.65 g/cm3. Nevertheless, the
expression for the bulk density of a shaley, water-bearing formation is:

ρm 2 ρz ρ 2 ρsh
φd 5 2 Vsh m ð12:14Þ
ρm 2 ρf ρm 2 ρf
When hydrocarbons are present in the formation, they lower the density
of the residual hydrocarbons in the mud-fluid flushed zone. The density of
the hydrocarbons (and their residual saturation) must be known, along
with the mud-fluid resistivity (Rmf) and the resistivity of the flushed zone
(Rxo) that is obtained from a microlog. The expression for this complex rela-
tionship is:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðρm 2 ρz Þ 1 1:97 Rmf =Rxo ð1:11 21:24ρh Þ
φd 5 ð12:15Þ
ðρm 21Þ 1 1:07ð1:11 21:24ρh Þ
When the resistivity of the flushed hydrocarbon zone is not available, the
porosity may be calculated from values of the resistivities of the formation
water, the hydrocarbon formation:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
ρm 1 Rw =Rt ρm 2 ρsh
φd 5 2 Vsh ð12:16Þ
ρz 2 ρf ρm 2 ρf
When a formation contains gas, the density log values are high and the
neutron log values are low; but when the two logs are used in combination,
they compensate for the differences and yield an accurate value of the poros-
ity. Hence, as a general rule, the density log is used in combination with the
neutron log for accurate evaluation of porosity.
NEUTRON LOG
The details of the theory behind the neutron log require considerable study
of the principles of nuclear radiation behavior, which is beyond the scope of
this chapter. A neutron source (beryllium/radium or beryllium/plutonium) on
the tool emits a continuous flux of energetic neutrons. The neutrons lose
energy as they migrate spherically from the source across the wellbore and
into the formation. The neutrons are absorbed by the nuclei of atoms in the
wellbore and the formation, and by a radiation detector spaced from 11 to
18 in. from the source of radiation. The penetration of the neutrons is gov-
erned by the hydrogen atoms on the fluids (water or hydrocarbons) and the
porosity of the formation, and the measurement of neutrons by the detector
indicates the relative amount of hydrogen in the formation. When the princi-
pal source of hydrogen in the formation is from the liquids in the pores,
the measured neutrons are correlated to the quantity of liquid present in the
pores. In high-porosity zones, only a small number of neutrons reach the
detector, and conversely in low-porosity zones, there will be a high count of
neutrons. Thus, the neutron log can be correlated to the porosity of the for-
mation where the pore spaces are filled with water or oil (the ratio of hydro-
gen in water and oil is almost equal). Thus, the neutron log is correlated to
yield a log of porosity of the subsurface formations traversed by the log. The
presence of shale in the formation results in high values of the porosity;
therefore, a Vsh correction is required; the correction adds to the neutron log
measured porosity because the measured porosity is lower when shale is
present. By assuming that the false porosity measurement of a shale adjacent
to the zone of interest is the same as the response to the shale content within
the porous bed of interest:
φn 5 φz 1 Vsh φsh ð12:17Þ
The neutron log yields too low a porosity when gas is present in the
zone. This can often be used to detect gas zones. If the formation has uni-
form porosity, the gas/liquid contact can be found from the neutron log.
A density log and neutron log combination provides a clear indication of
the gas/liquid interface as well as more accurate porosity values, using the
following relationship:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðφ2d 1 φ2n Þ
φtrue 5 ð12:18Þ
2:0
814 Petrophysics
MINI LOG
During drilling, the pressure of the drilling mud causes the mud fluid to
penetrate porous zones and displace the formation fluids while leaving a
cake of mud adjacent to the wellbore wall. The mud in the borehole has
a resistivity Rm, whereas the mud cake on the wall has a resistivity equal to
Rmc, which is usually slightly higher than Rm; and the flushed zone where
the formation fluid has been replaced by mud filtrate (resistivity equal to
Rmf) has a resistivity designated Rxo. The mini log, microlaterolog, and
proximity log are designed to measure the resistivity a few inches into the
flushed zone.
A small electrode at the lower part of an insulated pad that is braced
against the wall of the borehole is kept at a constant potential. Two button
electrodes (small spherical electrodes), above the current electrode, are
spaced 1 in. apart. The closest measuring electrode to the electrical current
input electrode theoretically measures the resistivity at a depth of 1.5 in.
(R1), and the second electrode (2 in. distant from the current electrode) mea-
sures the resistivity at a depth of 4 in. (R2).
The values of the two resistivity curves provide a good estimate of the
porosity of the formation. The general relationship of the resistivities and the
porosity of the formation is given in Archie’s equation:

Ro 1:0
5F5 ð12:19Þ
Rw φm
where
Ro 5 resistivity of the formation filled with water
Rw 5 resistivity of the water in the pores
m 5 cementation exponent that depends on the type of matrix
φ 5 porosity
The relationship generally used between the formation resistivity factor
and porosity is:
0:62
F 5 2:15 ð12:20Þ
φ
For the conditions within the flushed zone, the equation may be written as:
Rxo 0:62
5 F 5 2:15 ð12:21Þ
Rmf φ
To account for the presence of residual hydrocarbons in the flushed zone,
Eq. (12.21) becomes:

0:62ðRmf =Rxo Þ
φmi 5 ð12:22Þ
ð1 2 Srh Þ2
Equation (12.19) when applied to the water saturation of the undisturbed

formation (beyond the flushed zone) yields:

FRw 1=2
Sw 5 ð12:23Þ
Rt
and when applied to the saturation of mud fluid in the flushed zone (Sxo)
yields:

FRmf 1=2
Sxo 5 ð12:24Þ
Rxo
and

Sw Rxo =Rt 1=2
5 ð12:25Þ
Sxo Rmf =Rw
Substituting the empirical relationship that was developed with extensive
1=5
laboratory analyses (Sxo 5 Sw ) into Eq. (12.24) yields:

Rxo =Rt 0:625
Sw 5 ð12:26Þ
Rmf =Rw
MICROLATERO AND PROXIMITY LOGS

The microlog has a central current electrode surrounded by another electrode to
focus an electrical beam into the formation with the focusing or guard electrode.
The potential difference between the guard electrode and the central beam elec-
trode is continuously monitored to maintain it at zero. This causes the current
leaving the center (beam) electrode to flow through the mud cake and into the
formation as a narrow beam; the mud cake causes some reduction of the current
beam potential. The beam current spreads into the formation as a function of
the distance from the wall of the borehole, and thus a decrease in potential
occurs between the beam electrode and the detector electrode that is placed at a
remote distance from the focusing electrode pad. The measured resistivity is the
apparent resistivity of the formation within about 3 in. from the borehole wall.
The proximity log has two focusing electrodes surrounding the central beam
electrode. The extra focusing electrode (referred to as the shield electrode) elimi-
nates the scatter of the beam current by the mud cake. Thus, the proximity log
responds to about 6 in. into the formation. Equation (12.22) is used with any of
the Rxo reading micro tools to yield the porosity of the formation of interest and
Eq. (12.26) is used for determination of the water saturation where Rw is deter-
mined from the SP log or from analysis of the formation-produced water.
Any of the deep-reading tools (64-in. normal log, induction log, and lat-
erolog) furnishes the value of Rt, which is used in Eqs. (12.22) and (12.26).
816 Petrophysics
MEASUREMENT OF OIL AND GAS

The Simandoux equation is accepted as one of the best for calculation of Sw
for the widest range of conditions. Water saturation, along with a correction
for Vsh, is expressed as a quadratic equation as follows:
0 1 0 1
1 Vsh φ A 2
m
5 @ AS w 1 @ S ð12:27Þ
Rt Rsh aRw w
When Vsh 5 0, Eq. (12.26) reduces to Archie’s equation; thus:

m
1 φ aRw 1=2
5 S2w or Sw 5 m ð12:28Þ
Rt aRw φ Rt
The formation factor, F, is used below in the Simandoux equation,
allowing the chances required for selection of different types of lithology
(Table 12.1); thus:
0 1 0 1
@ 1 AS2 1 @Vsh ASw 2 1 5 0
FRw w Rsh Rt
ðaÞ ðbÞ ðcÞ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 b 1 b 24ac
2
ð12:29Þ
Sw 5
2a
0 1v ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u0 1 2 0 1 0 10 1
u
FR u V 4 V FR
Sw 5 @
wA
t@ sh A @ A 2 @ sh A@ w A
2 Rsh FRw Rt Rsh 2
TABLE 12.1 Selection of Well-Log Interpretation Parameters: Matrix

Designation, Fluid Transit Time for Various Types of Lithology, Density of
Various Types of Lithology, and the Formation Resistivity Factor, F
Matrix Δtf, μs/ft Type of Formation ρm, g/cm3 F
1 48 Carbonate (limestone) 2.71 1.0/φ2

2 50 Calcareous sand 2.69 1.45/φ2
3 53 Consolidated sand 2.65 0.81/φ2
4 59 Unconsolidated sand 2.60 1.0/φ1.5
5 65 Shaley sand 2.60 1.65/φ1.33

6 44 Dolomite 2.88 1.0/φ2
When the SP log is not available for calculation of Sw, the resistivity of a
water zone (bottom water, or an adjacent porous formation containing 100%
water) may be used in the Simandoux equation to calculate the water satura-
tion of the hydrocarbon zone with very good accuracy.
Thus, there are three possible calculations of Sw that can be used to
obtain the quantities of hydrocarbons in the reservoirs:
1. Water saturation derived from the SP log using the value for water resis-
tivity (RwSP),
2. The water saturation obtained from a microlog
3. Using the resistivity of an adjacent water zone in the Simandoux equation
in place of RwSP.
When the water saturation of a hydrocarbon zone is determined, the
quantity of oil or gas is determined from:
BBL 2 Res=acre 2 ft 5 7; 758 φ ð1:0 2 Sw Þ ΔHav

0 1
ΔH
STB=acre 2 ft 5 7; 758 φ ð1:0 2 Sw Þ@
av A
Bo
ð12:30Þ
CF=acre 2 ft 5 43; 560 φ ð1:0 2 Sw Þ ΔHav
0 1
ΔHav A
SCF=acre 2 ft 5 43; 560 φ ð1:0 2 Sw Þ@
Bg
Each of the well log programs is set individually. Data are entered as
indicated in the PRINT/READ statements of each program.
SP Log requires SUBROUTINE SPLOG

GAMMA RAY requires SUBROUTINE GAMMA
ACOUSTIC LOG requires SUBROUTINE ACOUSTIC
DENSITY/NEUTRON requires SUBROUTINE DENEUT
C SP LOG PROGRAM MAIN....requires the SPLOG SUBROUTINE

C Enter the data as shown in the PRINT/READ statements
C Refer to the NOMENCLATURE for the meaning of symbols
C
PRINT *, ’Tsur,BHT,BHD,Rmf,Tmf,Dzone,SSP,SPzone’
READ *, Tsur,BHT,BHD,Rmf,Tmf,Dzone,SSP,SPzone
C
CALL SPLOG (Tsur,BHT,BHD,Rmf,Tmf,Dzone,SSP,SPzone,RwSP,Rmfz, & VshSP,
Vsh)
C
PRINT 12, RwSP, Rmfz, VshSP, Vsh
818 Petrophysics
12 FORMAT(1X, ’RwSP 5 ’, F6.4, 3X, ’Rmfz 5 ’, F6.4, 3X, ’VshSP 5 ’, & F6.4, 3X,
’Vsh 5 ’, F6.4,/)
C
STOP
END
C Subroutine SPLOG uses data from the well log to calculate RwSP and VshSP
C
SUBROUTINE SPLOG (Tsur, BHT, BHD, Rmf, Tmf, Dzone, SSP, SPzone, $ RwSP,
Rmfz, VshSP, Vsh)
C
C Calculate Tzone, RwSP, and VshSP
C
Tzone 5 Tsur 1 (BHT - Tsur)*(Dzone/BHD)
Rmfz 5 Rmf*((Tsur 1 7.0)/(Tzone 1 7.0))
C
A 5 SSP/(60 1 0.133*Tzone)
Y 5 10**A
Rwe 5 Rmfz/Y
C IF(Rwe .LT. 0.08) GO TO 2
RwSP 5 Rwe
GO TO 4
C
2 A 5 (1/ALOG10(Tzone/19.9)) - 2.0
AA 5 10**A
B 5 Rwe 1 0.131*AA
C
C 5 0.0426/ALOG10(Tzone/50.8)
CC 5 10**C
D 5 -0.5*Rwe 1 CC
C
RwSP 5 B/D
C
4 VshSP 5 1.0 - (SPzone/SSP)
Vsh 5 VshSP
C
RETURN
END
C GAMMA-RAY LOG
C
PRINT *, ’N1,GRzone, GRcs, GRsh, ZONEG’
READ *, N1,GRzone, GRcs, GRsh, ZONEG
C
IF(N1 .GT. 1) GO TO 2
GO TO 3
C
2 CALL GAMMA (GRzone, GRcs, GRsh, ZONEG, VshGR)
C
PRINT 14, VshGR
14 FORMAT (1X, ’VshGR 5 ’, F6.4, /)
C
3 CONTINUE
STOP
END
Subroutine GAMMA
C
C Calculates VshGR when Gamma-Ray Log is available. N1 5 0 if there is no GR-
Log.
C
SUBROUTINE GAMMA (GRzone, GRcs, GRsh, ZONEG, VshGR)
c
V1 5 (GRzone - GRcs)/(GRsh - GRcs)
IF(ZONEG .eq. 1) GO TO 2
GO TO 4
C
2 TERM 5 3.7
GO TO 6
C
4 TERM 5 2.0
GO TO 6
C
6 A 5 V1*TERM
B 5 2**A - 1.0
C 5 2**TERM - 1.0
VshGR 5 B/C
C
RETURN
END
C ACOUSTIC LOG
C
PRINT *, ’N2, DELTz, DELTsh, ZONEA, MATRIX, VshSP, VshGR’
READ *, N2, DELTz, DELTsh, ZONEA, MATRIX, VshSP, VshGR
c
PRINT *, ’Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas, Rw, Rt,Rsh, DELHav’
READ *, Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas, Rw, Rt,Rsh, DELHav
C
GO TO 30
C
4 CALL ACOUSTIC (DELTz,DELTsh,ZONEA,MATRIX,VshSP,VshGR,Vsh,PHIac)
c
IF(MATRIX .EQ. 1) THEN
Fac 5 1.0/PHIac**2
820 Petrophysics
C
ELSE IF(MATRIX .EQ. 2) THEN
Fac 5 1.45/PHIac**2
C
Fac 5 0.81/PHIac**2
C
Fac 5 1.0/PHIac**1.5
C
Fac 5 1.65/PHIac**1.33
C
Fac 5 1.0/PHIac**2
END IF
C
CONTINUE
C
IF(MATRIX .EQ. 5) GO TO 26
Swac 5 SQRT(Fac*(Rw/Rt))
STBac 5 Joil*7758*PHIac*(1.0-Swac)*DELHav/Bo
SCFac 5 Jgas*43560*PHIac*(1.0-Swac)*DELHav/Bg
GO TO 28
C
26 CONTINUE
C Use the Simandoux Shaley Sand Equation to compute Sw for MATRIX 5
TE 5 SQRT((5*PHIac**2/Rw*Rt) 1 (Vsh/Rsh)**2)
Swac 5 0.42*Rw/PHIac**2*TE - Vsh/Rsh
C
STBac 5 7758*PHIac*(1.0 - Swac)*DELHav/Bo
SCFac 5 43560*PHIac*(1.0 - Swac)*DELHav/Bg
GO TO 28
C
28 PRINT 900, Vsh, PHIac
900 FORMAT(1X, ’Vsh 5 ’, F6.4, 3X, ’PHIac 5 ’, F6.4,/)
C
PRINT 902, STBac, SCFac
902 FORMAT(1X, ’STBac 5 ’, E12.4,3X, ’SCFac 5 ’, E12.4,/)
C
30 CONTINUE
STOP
END
C Subroutine ACOUSTIC calculates the porosity from data on the Acoustic Log,
C if the Acoustic Log is present.
C N2 5 O if there is no Acoustic Log
C PHIac is calculated for a water zone, oil zone, or gas zone.
C
SUBROUTINE ACOUSTIC (DELTz, DELTsh, ZONEA, MATRIX, VshSP, $ VshGR,
Vsh, PHIac)
C
C Select the value of DELTm based on the type of MATRIX
C
DELTm 5 48
C
DELTm 5 50
C
DELTm 5 53
C
DELTm 5 59
C
DELTm 5 65
C
DELTm 5 44
END IF
C
C Select the proper zone of interest and cal. PHIac
C
IF(ZONEA .EQ. 1) GO TO 6
C
6 DELTf 5 189.0
GO TO 11
C
8 DELTf 5 107
GO TO 11
C
10 DELTf 5 98
C
C Select Vsh from the Gamma Ray Log if it is available for
porosity correction.
C Otherwise, use VshSP for Vsh.
C
11 IF(VshGR .GT. 0) GO TO 12
Vsh 5 VshSP
GO TO 14
C
12 Vsh 5 VshGR
14 CONTINUE
C
IF(DELTsh .GT. 100) GO TO 16
A 5 ((DELTz - DELTm)/(DELTf - DELTm))
B 5 Vsh*((DELTsh - DELTm)/(DELTf - DELTm))
PHIac 5 A - B
GO TO 18
822 Petrophysics
C
16 Cp 5 100.0/DELTsh
A 5 ((DELTz - DELTm)/(DELTf - DELTm))
B 5 Vsh*((DELTsh - DELTm)/(DELTf - DELTm))
AA 5 A*1.0/Cp
PHIac 5 AA - B
C
18 CONTINUE
C
RETURN
END
C DENSITY/NEUTRON (Compensated Density/Neutron Logs, therefore they

indicate porosity directly on the logs)
C
PRINT *, ’N3,PHIdz, PHIdsh, PHInz, PHInsh, MATRIX,Vsh’
READ *, N3,PHIdz, PHIdsh, PHInz, PHInsh,MATRIX, Vsh
C
PRINT *, ’Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas, Rw,Rt, Rsh, DELHav’
READ *, Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas, Rw,Rt, Rsh, DELHav
C
GO TO 30
C
7 CALL DENEUT (PHIdz, PHIdsh, PHInz, PHInsh, Vsh, PHIdn)
C
Fdn 5 1.0/PHIdn**2
C
Fdn 5 1.45/PHIdn**2
C
Fdn 5 0.81/PHIdn**2
C
Fdn 5 1.0/PHIdn**1.5
C
Fdn 5 1.65/PHIdn**1.33
C
Fdn 5 1.0/PHIdn**2
END IF
C
CONTINUE
C
Swdn 5 SQRT(Fdn*(Rw/Rt))
STBdn 5 Joil*7758*PHIdn*(1.0-Swdn)*DELHav/Bo
SCFdn 5 Jgas*43560*PHIdn*(1.0-Swdn)*DELHav/Bg
GO TO 28
C
26 CONTINUE
TF 5 SQRT((5*PHIdn**2/Rw*Rt) 1 (Vsh/Rsh)**2)
Swdn 5 0.42*Rw/PHIdn**2*TF - Vsh/Rsh
C
STBdn 5 7758*PHIdn*(1.0 - Swdn)*DELHav/Bo
SCFdn 5 43560*PHIdn*(1.0 - Swdn)*DELHav/Bg
C
28 PRINT 908, PHIdn
908 FORMAT (1X, ’PHIdn 5 ’, F6.4,/)
C
PRINT 910, STBdn, SCFdn
910 FORMAT (1X, ’STBdn 5 ’, E12.4,3X, ’SCFdn 5 ’, E12.4,/)
c
30 CONTINUE
STOP
END
Subroutine DENEUT calculates the Density/Neutron Log porosity

C This porosity is generally considered the most accurate.
C
SUBROUTINE DENEUT(PHIdz, PHIdsh, PHInz, PHInsh,Vsh,PHIdn)
C
PHId 5 PHIdz - Vsh*PHIdsh
PHIn 5 PHInz 1 Vsh*PHInsh
C
A 5 PHId**2 1 PHIn**2
PHIdn 5 SQRT(A/2)
C
RETURN
END
C MINI-LOG, MICRO-LOG, or PROXIMITY LOG

C
PRINT *, ’N4, Rmf, Rxo,Rw,Rt,Rsh,Vsh, DELHav,MATRIX’
READ *, N4, Rmf, Rxo,Rw,Rt,Rsh,Vsh, DELHav,MATRIX
C
PRINT *, ’Tsur,BHT,BHD,Dzone’
READ *, Tsur,BHT,BHD,Dzone
C
PRINT *, ’Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas’
READ *, Bo, Bg, Joil, Jgas
824 Petrophysics
C
Tzone 5 Tsur 1 (BHT - Tsur)*(Dzone/BHD)
Rmfz 5 Rmf*((Tsur 1 7.0)/(Tzone 1 7.0))
C
GO TO 30
C
10 TERM 5 0.62*(Rmfz/Rxo)
PHImi 5 TERM**0.465
C
Fmi 5 1.0/PHImi**2
C
Fmi 5 1.45/PHImi**2
C
Fmi 5 0.81/PHImi**2
C
Fmi 5 1.0/PHImi**1.5
C
Fmi 5 1.65/PHImi**1.33
C
Fmi 5 1.0/PHImi**2
END IF
C
18 CONTINUE
C
Swmi 5 SQRT(Fmi*(Rw/Rt))
STBmi 5 Joil*7758*PHImi*(1.0-Swmi)*DELHav/Bo
SCFmi 5 Jgas*43560*PHImi*(1.0-Swmi)*DELHav/Bg
GO TO 28
C
26 CONTINUE
TG 5 SQRT((5*PHImi**2/Rw*Rt) 1 (Vsh/Rsh)**2)
Swmi 5 0.42*Rw/PHImi**2*TG - Vsh/Rsh
C
STBmi 5 Joil*7758*PHImi*(1.0-Swmi)*DELHav/Bo
SCFmi 5 Jgas*43560*PHImi*(1.0-Swmi)*DELHav/Bg
GO TO 28
C
28 PRINT 930, PHImi
930 FORMAT(1X, ’PHImi 5 ’, F6.4,/)
C
PRINT 932, STBmi, SCFmi
932 FORMAT(1X,’STBmi 5 ’, E12.4, 3X, ’SFCmi 5 ’, E12.4,/)
C
30 CONTINUE
STOP
END
DATA for SP Log Example

Tsur 5 70, BHT 5 142, BHD 5 4700, Rmf 5 1.126, Tmf 5 74,
Dzone 5 4660, SSP 5 108, SP 5 88
ANSWERS: RwSP 5 0.036, Rmfz 5 0.584, VshSP 5 0.185, Vsh 5 0.185
DATA for Gamma Ray Log Example
N1 5 2, GRzone 5 75, GRcs 5 57, GRsh 5 148, ZONEG 5 2 (consoli-
dated sand)
ANSWER: VshGR 5 0.1052
DATA for the ACOUSTIC Log Example
N2 5 2, DELTz 5 64, DELTsh 5 127, ZONEA 5 2, MATRIX 5 1,
VshSP 5 0.12, VshGR 5 0.18
Bo 5 1.4, Bg 5 0.006, Joil 5 1, Jgas 5 0, Rw 5 0.036, Rt 5 52, Rsh 5 8,
DELHav 5 10
ANSWERS: Vsh 5 0.18, PHIac 5 0.1034, STBac/acre 5 0.8372 E 1 04
DATA for the DENSITY/NEUTRON Log Example at 4418 feet depth
N3 5 2, PHIdz 5 0.19, PHIdsh 5 0.07, PHInz 5 0.21, PHInsh 5 0.24,
MATRIX 5 3
Vsh 5 0.18
Bo 5 1.4, Bg 5 0.006, Joil 5 1, Jgas 5 0, Rw 5 0.036, Rt 5 12, Rsh 5 9,
DELHav 5 8
ANSWERS: PHIdn 5 0.2186, STBdn/acre 5 0..1471 E 1 05
DATA for the MICRO Log Example
N4 5 2, Rmf 5 1.268, Rxo 5 7.0, Rw 5 0.03, Rt 5 8, Rsh 5 5,
Vsh 5 0.07, DELHav 5 30
MATRIX 5 3
Tsur 5 75, BHT 5 151, BHD 5 9417, Dzone 5 5720
Bo 5 1.4, Bg 5 0.006, Joil 5 1, Jgas 5 0
ANSWERS: PHImi 5 0.294, STBmi/acre 5 0.7782 E 1 05
NOMENCLATURE
Bg gas formation volume factor, Res-CF/SCF
Bo oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
BHD bottom hole depth, ft
BHT bottom hole temperature, F
826 Petrophysics
CF cubic feet
DELHav average formation thickness
DELHsp thickness of the zone from the SP log
DELHgr thickness of the zone from the gamma ray log
DELTf transit time of the formation fluid (acoustic log)
DELTm transit time of the matrix (acoustic log)
DELTz transit time in the zone of interest (acoustic log)
Dz depth (ft) of the zone of interest
F formation resistivity factor (Archie’s equation: a/φ )
2
GRcs gamma ray value in clean sand (minimum)

GRsh gamma ray value in shale (maximum)
GRz gamma ray value in the zone of interest
I electrical potential
IGR gamma ray index
Jgas no gas zone 5 0; gas zone 5 1
Joil no oil zone 5 0; oil zone 5 1
MATRIX type of formation for calculation of F (listed in the Table 12.1)
PHIac porosity from the acoustic log
PHId porosity from the density log
PHIdsh porosity from the density log in a shale zone
PHIdz porosity from the density log in the zone of interest
PHIn porosity from the neutron log
PHInsh porosity from the neutron log in a shale zone
PHInz porosity from the neutron log in the zone of interest
PHImi porosity from a microlog
rm electrical resistance of drilling mud
rsd electrical resistance of sand
rsh electrical resistance of shale
Rmf-sur resistivity of the mud fluid at surface temperature
Rmfz resistivity of the zone of interest
Rsh resistivity of a shale zone
Rt resistivity of the formation from a 64-in. normal, induction, or laterolog
Rxo resistivity of the flushed zone (from a microlog)
Rw formation water resistivity
Rwe equivalent water resistivity
RwSP water resistivity determined by the SP log
Sgr residual gas saturation
Sor residual oil saturation
SPz SP log value in the zone of interest
SSP static self-potential
SCF standard cubic feet of gas
STB stock tank barrels
Srhc saturation of residual hydrocarbon
Swi irreducible water saturation
Sw water saturation
Tf temperature of the formation
Tma temperature of the formation matrix
Tmf temperature at which Rmf was measured

Tsur average surface temperature (6080 F)
Vsh fraction of shale in the formation
Vsh-av average value from the SP log and GR log
VshGR fraction of shale determined from the gamma ray log
VshSP fraction of shale determined from the SP log
ZONE 5 1 unconsolidated formation
ZONE 5 2 consolidated formation
GREEK SYMBOLS
ΔHav average formation thickness
ΔHGR formation thickness from gamma ray log (ft)
ΔHSP formation thickness from the SP log
Δtf transit time of formation fluid, acoustic log
Δtm transit time of the formation matrix
Δtsh transit time in a shale zone
Δtz transit time in the zone of interest
φac porosity determined by the acoustic log
φd porosity determined by the density log
ρf density of the formation fluid
ρm density of the formation matrix
ρsh density of a shale zone
ρz density of the formation of interest

Basic Well-Log Interpretation: W T 1 N SH

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Basic Well-Log Interpretation: W T 1 N SH

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Chapter 12

Basic Well-Log Interpretation

FIGURE 12.1 Behavior of the SP log, mini log, and microlaterolog.

The SP is a measure of the mud resistivity adjacent to the porous forma-

The equivalent water resistivity (Rwe) is equal to the true formation

GAMMA RAY LOG

Vsh 5 0:083ð2ð3:7IGR Þ 21Þ ð12:10Þ

Gamma Ray & Caliper Bulk density

2.0 2.5 3.0

FIGURE 12.3 Gamma ray and bulk density logs.

Oil zone: Δtf 5 190ð1 2 Sor Þ 1 238½1:0 2 ð1 2 Sor Þ ð12:12Þ

Gas zone: Δtf 5 190ð1 2 Sgr Þ 1 626½1:0 2 ð1 2 Sgr Þ ð12:13Þ

Equation (12.19) when applied to the water saturation of the undisturbed

MICROLATERO AND PROXIMITY LOGS

MEASUREMENT OF OIL AND GAS

When Vsh 5 0, Eq. (12.26) reduces to Archie’s equation; thus:

TABLE 12.1 Selection of Well-Log Interpretation Parameters: Matrix

1 48 Carbonate (limestone) 2.71 1.0/φ2

5 65 Shaley sand 2.60 1.65/φ1.33

BBL 2 Res=acre 2 ft 5 7; 758 φ ð1:0 2 Sw Þ ΔHav

SP Log requires SUBROUTINE SPLOG

C SP LOG PROGRAM MAIN....requires the SPLOG SUBROUTINE

C DENSITY/NEUTRON (Compensated Density/Neutron Logs, therefore they

Subroutine DENEUT calculates the Density/Neutron Log porosity

C MINI-LOG, MICRO-LOG, or PROXIMITY LOG

DATA for SP Log Example

GRcs gamma ray value in clean sand (minimum)

Tmf temperature at which Rmf was measured

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