DISCOURSE MARKERS

Discourse means “pieces of language longer than a sentence”. Some words and expressions are used to show how discourse is constructed. They can show
the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been said or what is going to be said; they can help to make clear the structure of what is
being said; they can indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have said. There are a very large number of these “discourse
markers”, and it is impossible to give a complete list in a few pages. Here are a few of the most common examples. Some of these words and expressions have
more than one use; for more information, look in a good dictionary. Some discourse markers are used mostly in informal speech or writing; others are more
common in a formal style. Note that a discourse marker usually comes at the beginning of a clause. Take care with punctuation.

1. Focusing and linking

2. Balancing contrasting points
These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by announcing the
subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not
referring back to what was said before. contradict each other.

with reference to…
talking/speaking of/about…
regarding…
is very formal: used mainly at the beginning
of business letters.
E.g. With reference to your letter of March
17th, I am pleased to inform you that…
Is used to make a link with what has just
been said. It can help a speaker to change
the subject.
E.g. “I saw Max and Lisa today. You know,
she… Talking of Max, did you know he’s
going to Australia?”
Can come at the beginning of a piece of
discourse.
E.g. “Hello, John. Now look, regarding
those sales figures – I really don’t think…”
on the other hand
while / whereas
3. Emphasising a contrast
however / nevertheless
E.g. Arranged marriages are common in many Middle
Eastern countries. In the West, on the other hand,
they are unusual.
E.g. I like spending my holidays in the mountains,
while/whereas my wife prefers the seaside.
emphasise the fact that the second point
contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is very
formal.
E.g. Britain came last in the chess
championship again. However, we did have
one success, with Ann Smith’s win in the first
round.

as regards… /
as far as…is concerned Usually announce a change of subject by
the speaker/writer.
E.g. …there are no problems about
production. Now as regards marketing/ As
far as marketing is concerned, I think the
best thing is to…
as for… Often suggest lack of interest or dislike.
E.g. “I’ve invited Andy and Bob. As for
Stephen, I don’t care if I never see him
again.”
mind you / still
yet / still / in spite of this
(less formal) introduce the contrasting point as
an afterthought.
E.g. “I don’t like the job much. Mind you, / Still,
the money’s good.”
Yet, still and in spite of can be used to suggest
that something is surprising, in view of what
was said before.
E.g. He says he’s a socialist, and yet he owns
three houses and drives a Rolls.
The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I
managed to get to the meeting on time. (OR… I
still managed to get…)
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4. Similarity
6. Contradicting
similarly E.g. The streets are usually really busy during the
Christmas season. Similarly, the shops are packed on the contrary can be used to contradict a suggestion made by
during the summer sales. another speaker.
E.g. “Interesting lecture?”
in the same way E.g. We did everything we could to help our children “On the contrary, it was a complete waste of time.”
when they were younger.
In the same way, they in turn do the utmost for theirs. It can also be used when a speaker/writer strengthens
a negative statement which he/she has just made.
5. Concession and counter-argument E.g. She did not allow the accident to discourage her.
On the contrary, she began to work twice as hard.
These expressions are used in a 3-part structure: (1) the speaker/writer mentions
facts that point in a certain direction; (2) it is agreed (the concession) that a particular 7. Dismissal of previous discourse
contradictory fact points the other way; (3) but the speaker/writer dismisses this and
returns to the original direction of argument. anyway / anyhow / can be used to mean “what was said before doesn’t
at any rate matter – the main point is as follows”.
Concession: E.g. …cannot agree with colonialism. It is true that E.g. I’m not sure what time I’ll arrive, maybe 7.3o or
it is true the British may have done some good in India. Even 7.45. Anyway/Anyhow/At any rate, I’ll certainly be
of course so, colonialism is basically evil. there before 8.
certainly What a terrible experience! Anyway/Anyhow/At any
if E.g. …incapable of lasting relationships. Certainly, rate, you’re safe, that ‘s the main thing.
may several women loved him, and he was married twice.
emphatic do All the same, the women closest to him were deeply can suggest that one thing is certain or right, even if
unhappy. at least everything else is unsatisfactory.
E.g. The car’s completely smashed up, but at least
Counter-argument E.g. Very few people understood Einstein’s theory. Of nobody’s hurt.
however course, everybody had heard of him, and a fair
even so number of people knew the word “relativity”. But N.B. anyway is not the same as in any way, which
but hardly anyone could tell you what he actually said. means “by any method”.
nevertheless/nonetheless E.g. Can I help you in any way?
all the same E.g. It was a successful party. The cousins, if a little
still surprised by the family’s behaviour, were nonetheless
impressed by the friendly welcome they received.

E.g. I’m glad to have a place of my own. It’s true it’s a

bit small and it does need repairs. Still, it’s a home.
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8. Return to previous subject with; in the first E.g. There are three reasons why I don’t want to
(second/third) place … dancewith you. To start with, my feet hurt. For
As I was saying is used to return to an earlier subject after an another thing, you can’t dance. And thirdly, …
interruption or brief change of subject. For one thing; for
E.g. “…by car – Jeremy, leave the cat alone! As I was another thing Note that firstly, secondly, … are more formal than
saying, If I go by car it’ll be quicker.” first, second, … and are more common in British
English than American English.

9. Change of subject
11. Adding
By the way / incidentally are used to introduce something one has just thought
of that is not directly connected with the conversation.
E.g. “I was talking to Nora yesterday. By the way, she Moreover (very formal) are used to add information or arguments to what has
sends her regards. Well, she says…” Furthermore already been said.
E.g. “Janet wants to have a word with you. In addition E.g. The Prime Minister is unwilling to admit his
Incidentally, she’s lost a lot of weight. Anyway, it As well as that mistakes. Moreover, he is totally incapable of …
seems she needs to know…”. On top of that (informal) E.g. The people are desperately short of food. In
They can also change the subject completely. Another thing is addition, they urgently need medical supplies.
Fred’s had another accident, poor chap. By the way/ What’s more E.g. She borrowed my bike and didn’t give it back.
Incidentally, what happened to that bike I lent you? In any case And, on top of that/what’s more, she broke my
lawnmower!
right /all right / now / OK Often used by teachers, lecturers and people giving
instructions, to indicate that a new section of the 12. Generalising
discourse is beginning. (Sometimes 2 used at the
same time.) On the whole say how far the speaker/writer thinks a generalisation
E.g. Any questions? Right, let’s decide on the date of In general is true.
the next test. In all/most/many/ E.g. On the whole, I had a happy childhoos.
E.g. Now, I’d like to say something about your work. some cases In general, we are satisfied with your work.
E.g. Is that clear? OK, now has anybody tried to do Broadly speaking Broadly speaking, nurses are overworkes and
this exercise? By and large underpaid.
To a great extent To a great extent a person’s character is formed by
10. Structuring To some extent the age of eight.
In most case, people will be nice to you if you are nice
First(ly) / first of all / can be used to contradict a suggestion made by to them.
second(ly) / third(ly) another speaker.
etc; lastly / finally… are used to show the structure of what we are saying. Apart from… / introduce exceptions to the generalisation.
E.g. First(ly), we need somewhere to live. Except for… E.g. apart from the starter, the meal was excellent.
To begin with / to start Second(ly), we need to find work. And third(ly), … E.g. Except for sally, they all seemed pretty sensible.
 DISCOURSE MARKERS
13. Gaining time at least strong or definite that one has said.
E.g. I’m not working for you again. Well, that’s to say,
Let me see Expressions of this kind (often called “fillers”) give the not unless you put my wages up.
Let’s see speaker time to think. They are not used in writing. E.g. Ghosts don’t exist. At least, I’ve never seen one.
Well E.g. “How much are you selling it for?”
You know “Well, let me see…” I’m afraid is apologetic: it can introduce a polite refusal or bad
I don’t know E.g. “Why did you do that?” news.
I mean “Oh, well, you know, I don’t know, really, E.g. I’m afraid I can’t help you.
kind of I mean, it just sort of/kind of seemed a good E.g. I’m afraid I forgot to buy the stamps you wanted.
sort of idea at the time.”
I suppose can be used to enquire politely about something
(respectfully inviting a negative answer).
E.g. I suppose you’re not coming to the party?
14. Softening and correcting It can also be used to suggest unwilling agreement.
E.g. Can you give me a hand?” “I suppose so.”
I think/feel/reckon are used to make opinions and statements sound less
(informal)/guess (American) dogmatic – they suggest that the speaker is just giving or rather is used to correct oneself.
In my view/opinion a personal opinion, with which other people may actually is to add emphasis.
disagree. E.g. I’m seeing him in May – or rather, early June,
I think you ought to try again. actually.
I really feel she’s making a mistake.
I reckon/guess she just doesn’t respect him. I mean can be used to correct or soften.
In my view/opinion, we should postpone the E.g. Let’s meet next Monday – I mean Tuesday.
decision. E.g. She’s not very nice. I mean, some people like
her, but…
Apparently can be used to say that the speaker has got his/ her
information from somebody else (and perhaps does 15. Making things clear; giving details
not guarantee that it is true).
E.g. Have you heard? Apparently, Susie’s pregnant I mean is used to make things clearer or give more details.
again. E.g. It was a terrible evening. I mean, they all sat
around and talked politics for hours.
so to speak
more or less Actually can introduce details, especially when these are
sort of/kind of (informal) show that one is not speaking very exactly, or to unexpected.
well soften something which might upset other people. E.g. Tommy’s really stupid. You know, he actually
really Well and really can also be used to soften. still believes in Santa Claus.
E.g. I sort of think we ought to start going home,
perhaps, really. That’s to say Are used when the speaker/writer says something
E.g. I kind of think it’s more or less a crime. In other words again in a different way.
E.g. “Do you like it?” “Well, yes, it’s all right.” E.g. We cannot continue with the deal on this basis.
That is to say/In other words, unless you can bring
that is to say can be used to “back down” from something too down the price we shall have to cancel the order.
DISCOURSE MARKERS
16. Giving examples

For instance introduce particular examples to illustrate what has

For example been said/written.
e.g. E.g. People often behave strangely when they’re
in particular abroad. Take Mrs Ellis, for example/ for instance…

In writing, the abbreviation “e.g.” (Latin exempli gratia)

is often used to mean “for example”.
E.g. Some common minerals, e.g. silica or olivine…
In particular focuses on a special example.
E.g. We are not at all happy with the work you did on
the new kitchen. In particular, we consider that the
quality of wood used for the cupboards…

17. Referring to the other person’s expectations

actually (especially GB) These expressions are used when we show whether
in fact somebody’s expectations have been fulfilled or not.
as a matter of fact Actually can be used to say that somebody has
to tell the truth “guessed right”.
E.g. “Did you enjoy your holiday?” “Very much,
actually.”

Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact can introduce

additional information.
E.g. The weather was awful. Actually, there was a
flood and we had to come home.
E.g. “Was the concert good?” “Yes, as a matter of
fact, it was terrific.”
e.g. “Did you meet the Minister?” “Yes. In fact, he
invited us to lunch.”

All four expressions can be used when we say that

the hearer’s expectations were NOT fulfilled.
E.g. “How was the holiday?” “Well, actually, we
didn’t go in the end.”
E.g. “How much were the carrots?” “Well, in fact/ to
tell the truth, I forgot to buy them.”
E.g. “I hope you passed the exam.” “No, as a matter
of fact, I didn’t.”
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Actually is often used to introduce corrections.
E.g. “Hello, John.” “Actually, my name’s Philip.”
well can soften corrections, suggesting, “that’s nearly
right” .
E.g. “You live in Oxford, don’t you?” “Well, near
Oxford.”
After a new subject has been announced, well can
suggest that something new or surprising is going to
be said about it.
E.g. “What did you think of her new boyfriend?”
“Well, I was a bit surprised…”
E.g. “You know that house we were looking at? Well,
you’ll never guess who’s bought it.”
Showing one’s attitude to what one is saying
honestly can be used to claim that one is speaking sincerely.
frankly E.g. Honestly, I never said a word to him about the
money.
Both honestly and frankly can introduce critical
remarks.
E.g. Honestly, John, why do you have to be so rude?
E.g. “What do you think of my hair?” ”Frankly, dear,
it’s a mess.”
no doubt suggests that the speaker/writer thinks that something
is probable, but does not know for certain.
E.g. No doubt the Romans enjoyed telling jokes, just
like we do.

18. Persuading 19. Summing up

after all suggests “this is a strong argument that you haven’t in conclusion are common in formal style.
look taken into consideration”. Look is more strongly to sum up E.g. In conclusion, we can see that Britain’s
persuasive. (Even rude in certain situations). briefly economic problems…
E.g. I think we should let her go on holiday alone. in short E.g. To sum up, most of the committee members
After all, she is fifteen – she’s not a child any more. supported the idea.
E.g. You can’t go there tomorrow. Look, you’re just E.g. He’s lazy, he’s ignorant. In short, he’s useless.
not old enough.
20. Logical consequence
look here is an angry exclamation meaning “You can’t say/do
that!” therefore (formal) show that what is said follows logically from what was
E.g. Look here! What are you doing with my suitcase! as a result (formal) said before.
consequently (formal) E.g. She was therefore unable to avoid an
no doubt can be used to persuade people politely to do things. so unwelcome marriage. (Formal) N.B. Can also be used
E.g. No doubt you’ll be paying the rent soon? then at beginning or end of clause.
E.g. So she had to marry a man she didn’t like.
So is often used as a general purpose connector,
rather like and, in spoken narrative.
E.g. So anyway, this man came up to me and said,
“Have you got a light?” So, I told him, no, I hadn’t. So
he looked at me and…