REVIEW QUESTIONS

IGENOUS AND METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

1) Describe the different processes that could lead to a mafic magma evolving into an intermediate magma.

The Origin of Andesite Magma for most of our andesitic composite volcanoes (such as those found along the west coast of the Americas)
seems to originate from a depth of about 100 kilometers. This coincides with the depth at which the subducted oceanic plate is sliding
under the asthenosphere ( figure 3.28 ). Partial melting of the asthenosphere takes place, resulting in a mafic magma. In most cases,
melting occurs because the subducted oceanic crust releases water into the asthenosphere. The water collected in the oceanic crust when
it was beneath the ocean and is driven out as the descending plate is heated. The water lowers the melting temperature of the ultramafic
rocks in this part of the mantle. In other words flux melting takes place. Partial melting produces a mafic magma. But how can we keep
producing magma from ultramafic rock after those rocks have been depleted of the constituents of the mafic magma? The answer is that
hot asthenospheric rock continues to flow into the zone of partial melting. As shown in figure  3.28 , asthenospheric ultramafic rock is
dragged downward by the descending lithospheric slab. More ultramafic rock flows laterally to replace the descending material. A
continuous flow of hot, fertile (containing the constituents of basalt) ultramafic rock is brought into the zone where water, moving
upward from the descending slab, lowers the melting temperature. After being depleted of basaltic magma, the solid, residual, ultramafic
rock continues to sink deeper into the mantle. On its slow journey through the crust, the mafic magma evolves into an intermediate
magma by differentiation and by assimilation of silicic crustal rocks. Under special circumstances, basalt of the descending oceanic crust
can partially melt to yield an intermediate magma. In most subduction zones, the basalt remains too cool to melt, even at a depth of over
100 kilometers. But geologists believe that partial melting of the subducted crust produces the magma for andesitic volcanoes in South
America. Here, the oceanic crust is much younger and considerably hotter than normal. The spreading axis where it was created is not far
from the trench. Because the lithosphere has not traveled far before being subducted, it is still relatively hot. The reason that partial
melting of subducted basalt is unusual is that this kind of subduction and magma generation is, geologically speaking, short-lived.
Subduction will end when the overriding plate crashes into the mid-oceanic ridge. Most subduction zones are a long distance from the
divergent boundaries of their plates, so steep subduction and magma production from the asthenosphere are the norm.

2) In order for magma to form, conditions must change so that the geothermal gradient can intersect the zone of partial melting. With the aid
of a well labeled diagram, and citing relevant examples of different environments of formation which can bring about these perturbations,
explain the two most common mechanisms believed to create these conditions.
- (A) Flux Melting (B) Decompression melting

3) What is Metamorphism? List the conditions necessary for metamorphism, the different types of metamorphism, prevailing P-T condition,
and their typical environment.

- Change in Temperature, Pressure and Chemistry

 4) List and describe the environments where Magmas are generated.
- Oceanic, Continental. Tectonic Environments

5) What is the difference between feldspar found in gabbro and feldspar found in granite?
- Bowen reactions Series

6) Highlight the tectonic environments associated with types of metamorphic rocks and the general P-T condition.

7) Attempt a classification of the environment of formation of Igneous and Metamorphic rocks according to the different tectonic setting. In
the case of Metamorphic rocks, give the type of metamorphism taking place.

8) Using the Bowen’s reactions series, list and concisely explain the different possible mechanisms involved in the sequential crystallization
and melting of magma.

9) Highlight the various Igneous (Felsic, Mafic and Ultramafic) rock associations and tectonic environments where they are formed.

10) Why is a higher temperature required to form magma at the oceanic ridges than in the continental crust?

11) What are the limitations of Normative Mineralogy Calculations?

12) Complete the following table:

Rock type
Volcanic Plutonic Minerals Composition Viscosity Source Cause of Plate tectonic Volcanic
(% SiO2) (Pa s) melting location feature
Basalt Gabbro Ol, Pyx, Plag
Andesite Diorite Ol, Pyx, Plag
Rhyolite Granite Alkali feld, Q

13) Discuss SiO2/Al2O3 saturation relative to CIPW norm calculations

14) From the IUGS classification of mafic igneous rocks (Plagioclase-Pyroxene-Olivine ternary), calculate the modal mineralogical
composition of the mafic rock represented by the red blip in the ternary diagram below.
DRILLING METHODS

15) As the lead geoscientist in an upstream oil and gas company, the board of management has invited you to the company’s quarterly
meeting to give a brief on the most important aspect of the exploration project the company is proposing. Highlight important steps
involved in the exploration of hydrocarbon in the proposed oil field.
 Desk study (Literature Review), OML
 Seismic Data & Formation Evaluation
o Seismic Survey: Assessing seismic records for Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators
o Formation Evaluation (Qualitative): Drilling and Geophysical logging. (Nuclear log (Litholog): Distinguish
between the lithologies: sandstone and shale), Electrical Log: Confirm the presence of HC. Porosity and Density
log: to delineate between oil filled and gas filled zones of the reservoir.
 o Quantitative: STOIIP = HCIIP = GRV * Φ*(NTG)*(1-Sw)/FVF

16) STOIIP or HCIIP is a petrophysical acronym, what does it stand for. Write the mathematical expression for STOIIP and define all the
elements of the mathematical expression. (3 marks)

17) What are Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHIs), Give examples

Bright spot, dim spot, flat spot, phase reversal.

18) List the general types of GEOPHYSICAL logs and give at least an example under each type.
Electrical e.g. • Spontaneous Potential • Resistivity – Nuclear e.g. • Gamma Ray • Density • Neutron – Acoustic / Sonic e.g. •
Transit time

19) A. What is Rate of Penetration?

20) Write concise notes on the main factors that affect penetration rate.

21) Why is the knowledge of rotary drilling hydraulics important in any drilling practice?

22) Seismic surveys and Borehole data are essential in any hydrocarbon exploration program. Explain.

23) Write the mathematical expression for STOIIP and define all the elements of the mathematical expression.

24) Explain, concisely, three important drilling hydraulics features.

25) List 4 Important components of a cable tool drill system and their specific functions.

26) With the aid of a well-labelled diagram, summarize the concept of Invasion in a Bore-Hole Environment.

27) . Consider the table below and match the logging tools to their correct respective applications:

Gamma Ray and Determines the presence or

 Spontaneous Potential Log
Resistivity Log
Neutron Porosity and
Neutron Density Log
absence of Hydrocarbon in a
reservoir
Indicates fluid types and fluid
contacts in the reservoir
Indicates the different lithologies
present and their boundaries

28) Write concise notes on the following Petro-physical parameters:

i. Porosity
ii. Permeability
29) Briefly describe the following low-cost drilling methods: (i) Percussion drilling (ii) Hand-auger drilling (iii) Jetting (iv) Sludging (v)
Rotary-percussion drilling (vi) Rotary drilling with flush.
30) Whatever drilling method is used, there are several considerations which must be taken into account: Highlight 4 of them.
31) What is Directional Drilling? Review the types of directional well and 8 reasons why directional drilling is employed.
32) During directional drilling and vertical drilling, the drilling mud serves several purposes. Highlight 5 most important uses of drilling mud.
33) Discuss Fishing in Drilling.
34) List types of fish and common downhole fishing tools
35) Discuss the concept of Well logging Formation Damage.
36) According to Amaefule et al. (1988), highlight the various factors causing formation damage.
37) What is Horizontal or Directional Drilling?
38) List 7 elements to be considered before drilling a horizontal well.
39) List 6 applications of Directional drilling.
40) What is the factor that determine the selection and design of a particular drilling fluid and its properties?
41) Discuss the importance of routine testing of drilling fluids.
42) Highlight and concisely describe 5 main components of a safe and reliable water well system
43) In details, discuss well logging.