Plate Tectonics Plates

● The lithosphere is broken beneath. ● Plates move slowly and continuously.

● Plates oat on the asthenosphere beneath. ● Some plates are large some are sma .
● Convection currents in the asthenosphere drive ● Earthquakes happen at or near plate boundaries.
plate motion. ● 2 Types of plates
Plate Boundaries ○ Oceanic Plate
● Plate boundaries are the lines at the edges of the ○ Continental Plate
di erent pieces of the lithosphere. ● The oceanic plate is denser.
○ There are 3 plate boundaries MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES
■ Transform 1. Antarctic
■ Divergent 2. Eurasian
■ Convergent 3. African
Lithosphere 4. Australian
● The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth. The 5. Paci c
lithosphere is composed of many independent 6. North American
massive solid rocks ca ed ‘plates’. 7. South American
○ The lithosphere is made up of crust and the MINOR TECTONIC PLATES
upper part of the mantle. There are two 1. Philippine
types of crusts: 2. Arabian
■ Oceanic Crust 3. Nazca
● Made of Basalt 4. Scotia
■ Continental Crust 5. Juan de Fuca
● Made of Granite 6. Caribbean
● The lithosphere is broken into pieces. 7. Cocos
○ These ‘pieces’ or plates oat on the 8. Indian
asthenosphere beneath. RING OF FIRE
■ Asthenosphere is plastic or ● A horse shoe shaped belt about 40,000km long and
partia y melted layer. up to 500km wide.
Asthenosphere ● Where most volcanoes are
● Liquid in the mantle.
● Also known as Circom Paci c belt
● Rocks here are softer and partia y molten as
● Region around the rin of the paci c ocean
temperature rises to 3000’C
● Part of the upper mantle located below the crust of
the earth.
3 Plate Boundaries
● The asthenosphere is the mechanica y weak and
ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth
Transform Boundaries ↑↓
● Plates sliding past or slipping past each other.
● Features: Earthquake
● Example: San Andreas Fault and Paci c and
Caribbean Plate.
Convergent Boundaries →←
● Two types of convergent Boundaries
1. Subduction
● Oceanic & Continental
○ Continental-Continental -
Mountain Belt (Co ision Zone)
○ Oceanic-Oceanic - Volcanic Island
Arc
○ Continental-Oceanic - Subduction -
Trench
● When one plate is denser than another the
denser plate goes underneath the less
dense plate.
● Features: Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Ocean
Trench.
● Remember: The ocean oor is going down!
● Example:
○ Mt. St. Helens-Juan De Fuca Plate
goes under the North American
Plate.
2. Co ision
● When the two plates are of the same
material, When they hit, both buckle up.
● Two plates have the same density, they
buckle up aand move to a higher elevation.
● This makes mountains.
● Features: Earthquakes, Folded Mountains
● Convergent Boundaries are formed when two plates
move toward each other. The oceanic plate bends
downward at the subduction zone.
○ This occurs in two oceanic plates:
convergent boundary and continental plate-
Oceanic Plate convergent boundary.
● Oceanic Plate sinks because it is denser than the
continental plate.
● In case of convergence of two oceanic plates, the
older plate sinks. Whereas in the convergence of
two continental plates, they co ide and buckle up
forming mountain ranges.
○ No subduction occurs in this type of
convergence
● Example
○ Mt. Everest and the Himalayas
■ Plates are sti co iding and gaining
elevation.
○ Cagayan Va ey
○
Divergent Boundaries
● When two plates move apart
● Continental & Oceanic
○ Continental-Continental - Rift Va ey (Rift
Zone)
○ Oceanic-Oceanic - Sea oor Spreading
● Features:
○ In Continents: Rift va ey, Earthquakes
○ In Oceans: Mid Ocean Ridge, Volcanoes,
Earthquakes
● It refers to plates that separate and moves apart in
opposite directions forming new lithosphere- the
young sea oor.
○ This either occurs at mid-ocean ridges
(sea oor spreading) or at rifted
continental margins (Rift Va ey)
● Example:
○ Great Rift Va ey, Africa
○ Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Atlantic Ocean
Cold Crust = Higher Density
Hot Crust = Lower Density
THEORIES
Raisin Theory
● Suggested that as the Earth Cooled from its molten
state, features like mountains or mountain ranges
formed as it cooled and shrank.
Theory of Isostasy 1889
● Clarence Edward Dutton
● The crust must be oating on the denser underlying
mantle.
● Isostasy is the rising or settling of a portion of the
earth’s lithosphere that occurs when weight is
removed or added in order to maintain balance.
Tectonic Plates Theory
● Suggests that the earth's lithosphere is divided into
several plates that glide over the earth’s
asthenosphere.
Continental Drift Theory
● Alfred Wegener proposed that Earth must have once
been a single supercontinent before breaking up to
form several di erent continents.
● It rst divided into two:
○ Laurasia
■ Asia, North America and Europe
○ Gondwana
■ Africa, Antarctica, South America
and Australia
Sea oor Spreading Theory
● Takes place at divergent plate borders.
● The heat from the mantle’s convection makes the
crust more plastic and less dense when plates drift
apart from one another. Less dense material rises,
often forming a mountain or elevated area of the
oor.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PANGEA
F.B Taylor
● In 1910, F.B Taylor, an American, discussed the
origin of mountains.
● He explained that continental movements that
ended in co isions would cause the formation of
mountains.
Alfred Wegener
● Alfred Lothar Wegener (Nov, 1, 1880 - 1930) was a
German polar researcher, geophysicist, and
meteorologist.
● He is most remembered as the original theorist of
the theory of continental drift in 1912 by
hypothesizing that the continents are slowly
drifting around the Earth.
PANGEA
● It is a supercontinent that is said to have existed
from Permian through the Jurassic Period in our
earth's history.
● The word Pangaea comes from the Greek words
“pan” and “Gaia”
○ “pan” meaning “entire”
○ “Gaia” meaning “earth”
● Therefore Pangaea litera y means “Entire Earth.”
● PANTHALASSA
○ It was what the ocean was referred to
○ “Pan” meaning “Entire Earth”
○ “Thalassa” meaning “Sea”
PHANEROZOIC EON - Mesozoic Era
Triassic Period
● About 180 mi ion years ago, rifting along an ancient
body of water ca ed Tethys sea broke the
supercontinent into a northern landmass ca ed
Laurasia and a southern landmass ca ed Gondwana
Land.
Jurassic Period
● It was the second segment of the Mesozoic Era. It
occurred from 1996 to 145.5 mi ion years ago
fo owing the Triassic period and preceding the
Cretaceous Period.
Cretaceous Period
● It was the last and longest segment of the Mesozoic
Era. It lasted approx. 79 mi ion years from the
minor extinction event that closed the Jurassic
Period about 145.5 mi ion years ago to the
Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event dated at
65.5 mi ion years ago.

EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENT
German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed evidence to back
up his continental drift theory, but his claims were initia y
rejected.
About half a century after his death improvement in science
and technology validated his claims.
EVIDENCES OF PLATE MOVEMENTS
1. Magnetic reversal
The idea of continental drift circulated in scienti c
circles when sounding gear ca ed SONAR produced
new evidence of what the sea oor looked like. The
gear developed in the 1930s, bounded sound waves o
the sea oor to determine its depth and features.
2. Sea oor Spreading and Magnetic Reversal
● Harry Hammond Hess, a geologist from
Princeton University, and his men
accidenta y discover sea oor spreading
when they explored the ocean oor.
● Harry Hess observed that the rate of
formation of a new sea oor at the
mid-ocean ridge isn't always as fast as the
destruction of the old sea oor at the
subduction zone.
● This explains why the Paci c Ocean is
getting sma er and why the Atlantic Ocean
is getting wider
● If the subduction zone is faster than the
sea oor spreading the ocean shrinks. He
published his theory in History of Ocean
Basins 1962, and it came to be ca ed
“Sea oor Spreading”
● In the early 1960s, dating of ocean-core
samples showed that the ocean oor was
younger at the mid-Atlantic ridge but
progressively older in either direction
con rming the reality of sea oor spreading
● Further evidence came along by 1963, as
geophysicist realized that earth’s magnetic
eld had reversed polarity many times with
each reversal lasting less than 200,000
years. Rocks of the same age in the sea oor
crust would have taken on the magnetic
polarity at the time that part of the crust
formed.
3. Magnetic Reversal
● The needle of the magnetic compass usua y
points to the north pole of the earth which
is actua y the south magnetic pole at
present.
● The crysta ized irons in rocks found in the
sea oor act as magnetic compass than can
te the earth’s magnetic eld direction.
● The occurrence of the magnetic reversal
can be explained through magnetism
patterns in the magnetic ricks. These
magnetic patterns a ow our scientists to
understand the ages and rate of movement
of the materials from the mid-ocean ridge.
● Magnetic reversal also ca ed the “Magnetic
Flip” of the earth happens when the north
pole is transformed into a south pole and
the south pole becomes the north pole.
How can magnetic reversal be used as evidence of the
sea oor spreading theory?
● It was strengthened with the discovery of the
magnetic rocks near the ridge fo owing a pattern
aside from the fact that the rocks near the ridge
are younger than those farther from the ridge.
Sea oor Spreading
Tubeworms have no mouth, eyes, or stomach “gut”. Their
survival depends on a symbiote relationship with the bi ions
of bacteria that live inside of them. These bacteria convert
the chemical that shoots out of the deep sea vents into food
for the worm.
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT ● The Oceanic crust, which the oceans sit on, is around
5-8 kilometers deep. It is mainly made of basalt
1. Geological Fit which is a type of Igneous (or volcanic) rock.
- The coastlines of continents appears to t Continental Crust
together. ● The other part is the continental crust, which is
- the matching of large-scale geological where we live on. This varies from around 8
features on di erent continents. kilometers to 70 kilometers and is largely made of
2. Fossils another igneous rock ca ed Granite.
- Mesosaurus Fossils Mantle
- Cynognathus Fossils ● It's mainly composed of silicate rock and minerals,
- Lystrosaurus Fossils and it’s about 2900 kilometers thick, which makes it
- Glossopteris Fossils as the thickest layer of Earth, also making up 85%
- Fossil Correlation of the earth's total weight!
3. Glaciers ● This again can be split into two distinct layers, the
- Glacial Striations upper and lower mantle.
- Bituminous Coal ● Upper mantle
○ The outer part of the upper mantle is like the
- Compacted plant remains
crust but much cooler and rigid.
- Past Climate Data
● Lithosphere
- Paleoclimate Data
○ The crust and outer upper mantle together are
4. Rock Terrains
ca ed the lithosphere. The lithosphere is broken
- Rock Mountain Correlation
into large pieces which make up Earth's tectonic
- Geologic Structure
plates.
- Same type of rocks and age
● Asthenosphere
- Northeast U.S and North West Europe
○ Tectonic plates sit on the inner part of the upper
mountain ranges
mantle ca ed the asthenosphere. The rock here
is softer and partia y molten as temperatures
Wegener went to the north pole to gather evidence
rise to 3,000° degrees Celsius.
- Died in the north pole during evidence gathering
● Lower Mantle
○ The lower mantle is just as hot as the upper, the
THE EARTH‘S INTERIOR rocks being hot enough to melt, but remain solid
due to the pressure being pushed down on it. The
Crust
lower mantle is slowly moving due to convection
● The outermost and thinnest layer of the earth.
currents, which is when deeper hotter material
There are two parts of the crust, one part being the
rises, then cool and sinks again.
oceanic crust, and the other part being the
● Outer Core
continental ○ It is approximately 2,400 kilometers thick
crust. mostly made up of liquid Iron and nickel at a
temperature between 4,000 – 6,000° Celsius. The
ow of the liquid here is what creates Earth’s
magnetic eld.
Oceanic Crust ● Inner Core
 ○ The hottest part of Earth with temperatures
Measuring Seismic Waves
between 5000-6000° Celsius. It is roughly 1400
kilometers thick and is also primarily iron and Modi ed Merca i Scale
nickel. The air pressure here is three mi ion - Roman Numerals
times that of the sea level which causes the core
The Richter Scale
to become solid metal.
- Numbers 0-18 and over
DISCONTINUITIES
Types of Earthquake
● Mohorovicic Discontinuity
○ Crust and Mantle 1. Tectonic Earthquake
● Gutenberg Discontinuity 2. Volcanic Earthquake
3. Co apse Earthquake
○ Mantle and Core
4. Explosion Earthquake
● Lehman Discontinuity
○ Outer and Inner Core Mountains
Stages of mountain buildings
1. Accumulation of Sendiments
Earth Quake ● These accumulated layers can reach up to
● Shaking of the earth caused by tectonic plates several kilometers in thickness. They came
Anatomy of an Earthquake from nearby terrestrial landmasses.
1. Focus (hypocenter) – It is the point on the fault ● Through weathering and erosion, particles
where rupture occurs and the location from which are released from rocks, and sediments are
seismic waves are released.
transported to the edge of the continental
2. Epicenter – it is the point on the earth’s surface
that is directly above the focus, the point where an crust.
earthquake or underground explosion originates 2. Stages Orogenic Period of Rock Deformation and
3. Faunt Crustal Uplift
a. Fault plane – these are the cracks or sudden ● Accumulated Sediments are deformed by
slips of the land compressional forces from the co ision of
b. Fault Trace/Line – is the surface trace of a tectonic plates
fault, the line of intersection between the 3. Period of Crustal Uplift Caused by Isostatic
earth’s surface. Rebound and Block-faulting
c. hanging wa – refers to the block of crust
above the fault
Types of Mountain Ranges
d. foot wa – refers to the block of crust
1. Folded Mountains Ranges
below the fault.
2.Volcanic Mountain Ranges
Types of Fault
3. Erosion-Formed Mountain Ranges
1. Normal Fault – is a fault in which the hanging wa 4. Dome Mountain Ranges
moves down relative to the footwa .
5. Fault-Blocks Mountain Ranges
2. Reverse Fault – is a fault in which the hanging wa
moves up relative to the footwa .
3. Strike-slip Fault – is a fault in which two blocks of
crust slide past each other on the same plane
VOLCANOES Additional

Volcano
● A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a
reservoir of molten rock ca ed magma below the
surface of the earth. Some volcanoes erupt with
violent explosions that release huge amounts of ash
and lava.
Volcanism
● Volcanism refers to the processes and phenomena
associated with the sur cial discharge of molten
rock and other materials into the surface of the
Earth.
Convection
● Convection occurs when matter, such as magma,
circulates within Earth. It is caused by the change in
temperature, density, and pu of gravity. When
magma is heated, it expands and becomes less
dense. When this happens, the molten material rises
up and moves away from Earth’s core, causing
volcanic eruptions above the lithosphere.

Three stages of a volcano’s life cycle

1. Invasion of Magma
2. Building Pressure
3. Explosive Eruption

Hotspots and mantle plumes were rst observed in the 1960s

● Hot spot is the surface expression of the mantle
plume.