Chapter 5 Fourier Series

5.1 Introduction:

Before starting with Fourier series expansion, you need to make sure to understand the following
concepts: (Script of this course and the Analytical principles of Mathematics course from the WS)

• Infinite and finite series and sums

• Odd and even functions
• Periodic functions, especially 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥)
• Split or piecewise functions
• Integrals using integration by parts and substitution

The following is a quick reminder of some features that will help you better understand this section.

For instance 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) is an even function while 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥) is an odd function. Both have the period of 2𝜋𝜋

Further, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = cos(2𝜋𝜋) = 1 for 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, … (even values)

cos((2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋) = −1 for 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, … (odd values)

In general we can write 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = (−1)𝑛𝑛 which will generate both even and odd value.

where 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

A function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is periodic with period𝑝𝑝 > 0 if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑝𝑝) for all 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 10𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

The sum ∑4𝑛𝑛=1 is evaluated as + + + = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Some useful Integrals:

1
• ∫ 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛2 (sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))
1
• ∫ 𝑡𝑡 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛2 (cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))

5.2 Full Range Fourier Series

A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) in terms of an infinite sum

of sines and cosines.

For a given periodic wave form 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) with a period 𝑝𝑝 = 2𝐿𝐿 the Fourier Series is given by:

𝑎𝑎0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2
+ ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿
+ ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿
or equivalently

𝑎𝑎0 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +⋯
2 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

+𝑏𝑏1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏4 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +⋯
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
 𝑎𝑎0
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 are called the Fourier coefficients and 2
is called the mean value. They are evaluated as
follows:

1 𝐿𝐿
• 𝑎𝑎0 = 𝐿𝐿 ∫−𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
• 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝐿𝐿 ∫−𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝐿𝐿 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
• 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 𝐿𝐿 ∫−𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

Example 1: (Squqre Wave)

0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 4 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < 0
Give the function f(𝑡𝑡) = �
5, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < 4

With 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 8)

Find the Fourier series for that function

Solution:

𝑝𝑝
The period of the function 𝑝𝑝 = 8, so 𝐿𝐿 = =4
2

We use the above formulas to evaluate the Fourier coefficients 𝑎𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 and 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛

𝐿𝐿 4 0 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 0 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 + � 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� = (0 + [5𝑡𝑡]40 ) = (20) = 5
𝐿𝐿 4 4 4 4 4
−𝐿𝐿 −4 −4 0

𝐿𝐿
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
−𝐿𝐿

4 0 4
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4
= � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �(0) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �(5) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� = �0 + �5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � �
4 4 4 4 4 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 0
−4 −4 0

5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(4) 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(0) 5

= ��𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � �= �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �= {sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − sin 0} = 0
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝐿𝐿
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
−𝐿𝐿

4 0 4
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4
= � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �(0) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �(5) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� = �0 + �−5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � �
4 4 4 4 4 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 0
−4 −4 0

−5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 −5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(4) 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(0) −5 −5

= ��𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � �= �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �= {cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − cos 0} = {cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 1}
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
 Now we substitute the coefficients in the Fourier series formula:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑎𝑎0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 −5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = + �(0)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +� (cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 2 4 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 4
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1

∞
5 1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
= 2.5 − � � (cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �
𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 4
𝑛𝑛=1

We can substitute the values for 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, …. to extract the sum:

∞
𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
� (cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛 4
𝑛𝑛=1
1 1 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 Odd
(cos 1𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
1 4 𝟒𝟒
2 1 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Even
(cos 2𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝟎𝟎
2 4
3 1 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 Odd
(cos 3𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
3 4 𝟑𝟑 𝟒𝟒
4 1 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Even
(cos 4𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝟎𝟎
4 4
5 1 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝟐𝟐 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 Odd
(cos 5𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
5 4 𝟓𝟓 𝟒𝟒
6 1 6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Even
(cos 6𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝟎𝟎
6 4
7 1 7𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝟐𝟐 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 Odd
(cos 7𝜋𝜋 − 1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
7 4 𝟕𝟕 𝟒𝟒

5 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 7𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2.5 − �−2 sin − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + ⋯�
𝜋𝜋 4 3 4 5 4 7 4

Taking −2 as a common factor, we can rewrite it as

10 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 7𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2.5 + �2 sin + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +⋯�
𝜋𝜋 4 3 4 5 4 7 4

Another method to solve the problem:

Note that the all even terms will have zero value and odd terms are having the value

−5 −5 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (−1)𝑛𝑛 = +1

𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = {cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 1} = {(−1)𝑛𝑛 − 1} = �
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (−1)𝑛𝑛 = −1

So for odd numbers

−5 10
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = (−1 − 1) =
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

To generate odd numbers, we need to write 𝑛𝑛 = (2𝑛𝑛 − 1), where 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….

Thus
 10
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋

Will generate all the odd values in the sine terms of the Fourier series. Which means we can write
the sums as:

∞ ∞
𝑎𝑎0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1
∞ ∞
5 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 10 (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= + �(0)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 4 (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋 4
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1

∞
1 (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= 2.5 + 0 + 10 � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋 4
𝑛𝑛=1

∞
1 (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= 2.5 + 10 � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝜋 4
𝑛𝑛=1

Evaluating the first 7 terms of the sum, we will get the same as before:

10 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 3𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 1 7𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2.5 + �2 sin + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +⋯�
𝜋𝜋 4 3 4 5 4 7 4

5-2 Common Case: Period = 2𝝅𝝅

There are many functions that are defined in the range – 𝜋𝜋 to 𝜋𝜋 (i.e the period 𝑝𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜋 = 2𝐿𝐿), in this
case 𝜋𝜋 = 𝐿𝐿 and the Fourier coefficients are:

𝜋𝜋
1
𝑎𝑎0 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋

So, the Fourier series is given by:

∞ ∞
𝑎𝑎0
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1

where 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
Example 2:
a) Sketch the waveform of the periodic function defined as:
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 2𝜋𝜋)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡

b) Obtain the Fourier series of 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and write the first 4 terms of the series.

Solution:

a)

b) Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) be periodic function with period 𝑝𝑝 = 2𝜋𝜋, and let 𝐿𝐿 = 𝜋𝜋

The Fourier series is given by:

∞ ∞
𝑎𝑎0
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + � 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
2
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
1 1 1 𝑡𝑡 2 1 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋 2
𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 = � 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � = � − � = 0
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2 −𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2 2
−𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
1 1 1 1
𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 = � 𝑡𝑡 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 (cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))�
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 −𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋
1 1
= � 2 (cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))�
𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 −𝜋𝜋
1
= 2 [ (cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)) − (cos(−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin(−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))]
𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛

Since cos(−𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑥𝑥) and sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 0

𝜋𝜋
1
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = � 𝑡𝑡 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
1 1 1
𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 (sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))�
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛 −𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋
 1
= [(sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 cos(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)) − (sin(−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 cos(−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))]
𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛2

Since cos(−𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑥𝑥) and sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 0

−2 −2 cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)
= 2
(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)) =
𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛

Now since cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = (−1)𝑛𝑛 :

2 (−1)𝑛𝑛
=
𝑛𝑛

So, the Fourier Series is:

∞ ∞ ∞
0 2 (−1)𝑛𝑛 𝟐𝟐 (−𝟏𝟏)𝒏𝒏
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = + � 0 ∙ cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + � sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = � 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏)
2 𝑛𝑛 𝒏𝒏
𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛𝑛=1 𝒏𝒏=𝟏𝟏

5.3 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions

As you noticed in the previous examples, finding the Fourier coefficients could be difficult and time
consuming. If we know in advance that the function in hand is odd or even, we can spare time and
effort since one of the coefficients will be zero.

Remember the definitions:

Given a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡):

• The function is Even, if 𝑓𝑓(−𝑡𝑡) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)

• The function is Odd, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)

The summary for the Fourier series of even and odd functions:

If the function is even, then the Fourier coefficient 𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎𝟎

If the function is odd, then the Fourier coefficient 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎𝟎

Notice that we could conclude that 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0 in the previous example, since 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 is an odd
function.