TITLE PAGE

Title of experiment: SAPONIFICATION VALUE OF OIL.

Aim of experiment: TO DETERMINE THE

SAPONIFICATION VALUE OF OIL (NEEM SEED OIL).

Experiment number: 01

Name of student: OSOMADE EBELE ESTHER

Matriculation Number: ENG1905043

Serial Number: 019

Experiment number: 01

Group: A3

Level: 300

Date of experiment: 28-03-2023

Course code: CHE 301

Name of instructor: MR. COLLINS AGBONGHILE

i
 TABLES OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Title page…………………………………………………………………… i

Table of contents…………………………………………………………….ii

Figures and tables…………………….………………………………..…….iii

Abstract ...……………………………………………………………………iv

Introduction……………………………………………………………………1

Theory…………………………………………………………………..……..6

Description of Apparatus ………………………..………………………....…10

Materials used…………………………………………………………………16
Procedure ……………………………………………………………..............17

Result and analysis …………..………..………………………………………19

Discussion…..………………………………………………………………….21

Conclusion ………………………………….…………………………………24

Recommendation …………………………………………..……………….…25

References ………………..……………………………………………………26

Appendix ………………………………………………………………………27

ii
 FIGURES AND TABLES

List of Figures

Figures Description Page Number

1 Burette 10
2 Dropper 10
3 Beaker 11
4 Reagent bottle 11
5 Weighing balance 12
6 Measuring cylinder 13
7 Funnel 13/14
8 Reflux condenser 14
9 Retort stand 15
10 Flat-bottom conical flask 16

List of Tables

Table Title Page

Number
1 Titration of alcoholic KOH alone against
HCL (Blank titration) 19
2 Titration of Neem seed oil mixed with
alcoholic KOH after refluxing against 19
HCL

iii
 ABSTRACT
The determination of an oil's saponification value can be done easily and
effectively using the approach described in this report. The experiment was aimed
at finding the saponification value of Neem seed Oil. The experiment was done
by titration, heating and refluxing. The basic titration apparatus was used to
achieve the result and they include: digital weighing balance, funnel, dropper,
burette, retort stand, and bottles containing absolute ethanol (95% purity), Oil,
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) and phenolphthalein indicator. The apparatus used
for refluxing was a reflux condenser.

The experiment started with the apparatus being washed and dried. The samples
of the oil (1 g) were mixed with the alcoholic potassium hydroxide. It was placed
in a reflux condenser and heating mantle to heat the mixture for an hour. The
reflux condenser was used to cool the vapour after heating back to liquid. It was
then titrated against 0.5M of HCL using a phenolphthalein indictor for visible
results. The KOH was added in drops to each sample until a colour change was
observed. A blank titration was also done whereby there was no oil added and no
refluxing. 50 ml of alcoholic KOH was titrated against 0.5M of HCL. The values
gotten were recorded and used to get the saponification of the oil.

Based on the result calculated using the saponification formula given, the
saponification value Neem seed oil is 221.59mg of KOH/ g. This is a high
saponification value meaning it can be used in the making quality soap.

iv
 INTRODUCTION

A nonpolar chemical compound known as an oil is viscous and hydrophobic

(does not mix with water) as well as lipophilic (attracts fats) (mixes with other
oils). Any oily liquid derived from minerals, plants, or chemicals is considered
oil, according to a lay definition. Oil is frequently combustible and surface active
and contains a high amount of carbon and hydrogen. The majority of oils are
unsaturated, liquid lipids.There are two types of fats that are solid at room
temperature. They are saturated fats and transfats.

To produce quality soap is the aim of every soap maker, but the ability to manage
the materials given and produce the soaps without wastage shows more
qualification. Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. It
is known all-round as a cleansing agent both in liquid and bar form. The
production of this soap is known as Saponification. In this process soap can be
produced using excess potassium hydroxide or excess sodium hydroxide
producing a more alkaline soap which makes the soap too foamy resulting to
wastage. Also excess oil can result in a soap that does not lather easily, therefore
in producing quality soap the amount of potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide must be found that will react completely with the exact amount of oil
to be used. This is where the Saponification of Oil comes in.

One of the major uses of oils is in the soap industry. The process used is called
saponification. Saponification is a process that involves the conversion of oil or
lipids into soap and alcohol by the action of an aqueous alkali (KOH). In more
technical terms, Saponification can also be defined as a hydration reaction where
free hydroxide breaks the ester bonds between the fatty acids and glycerol of a
triglyceride, resulting in free fatty acids and glycerol which are soluble in aqueous
solutions. Another definition is the hydrolysis of an ester to form an alcohol and
the salt of a carboxylic acid in acidic or essential conditions. A layman would

1
define it as the act, process or result of making soap and to some extent, he is not
wrong.

Saponification is literally soap making. It is the chemical reaction in which the

building blocks of oils react to form soap. The products of saponification reaction
are glycerine and soap. Chemically, soap is a fatty acid salt. Saponification is an
exothermic chemical reaction –which means that it gives off heat – that occurs
when oil comes in contact with a base.

An ester is a molecule that is formed from an alcohol and an acid. In the case of
fats, glycerin is the alcohol, and the acids are fatty acids like stearic, oleic, and
palmitic acids.

Saponification is a type of chemical reaction between a strong alkali or base (such

as sodium or potassium hydroxide) and oil. When the alkali solution is thoroughly
mixed with the oils, a reaction called saponification begins. What this means is
that the glyceride of the triglyceride breaks off to form glycerine, and the sodium
or potassium bonds with the ‘acid’ to form soap.

The “acid” is fatty acid from the oil. It is liberated from the glycerin ester by the
base in saponification. The base is a strong alkali like sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide. The saponification byproduct is glycerin from the oil. For
soap making, glycerin is not removed from the soap mixture.

The type of base used in the reaction affects how the soap would turn out. With
sodium hydroxide, you get bar soap; with potassium hydroxide, you get liquid
soap. Also, hard soap is made using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hard soaps are
especially good cleansers in hard water that contains magnesium, chloride, and
calcium ions. Soft soap is made using potassium hydroxide (KOH) rather than
sodium hydroxide. In addition to being softer, this type of soap has a lower

2
melting point. Most early soaps were made using potassium hydroxide obtained
from wood ash and animal fats. Modern soft soaps are made using vegetable oils
and other polyunsaturated triglycerides. These soaps are characterized by
weaker intermolecular forces between the salts. They readily dissolve, yet also
tend not to last as long.

Animal fats typically create a harder bar of soap that may or may not be beneficial
to your skin. Vegetable oils produce soap that is generally softer and gentler to
the skin. There are exemptions of course. Coconut and Palm Kernel Oils produce
soap that is hard and can be drying to the skin. These oils are made of short chain
saturated fats that make excellent sudsy cleansing soap.

Most people have heard about saturated fats and their link to obesity, heart
disease, and other ailments. But for soap, saturated fats have multiple benefits.
Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature and consist of straight-
chained molecules. For bar soap, they give the soap hardness as helping the soap
last longer in the shower.

The most commonly used saturated fat used for commercial soap making is beef
fat, also known as tallow. It is usually the first and most abundant ingredient in
many bars of soaps. It is widely available as a by-product from the meat industry
and is, therefore, one of the cheapest fats.

Another common saturated fat is coconut oil. It also gives a very hard white bar
of soap, but unlike tallow, the fatty acids are shorter-length carbon chains that
increase water solubility. This greater solubility in water helps generate more
suds and increases the cleaning ability. Unfortunately, soap made from coconut
oil alone would be drying to the skin, so some conditioning and moisturizing
ingredients need to be added.

3
This drying of the skin is a testament to the cleaning power of coconut fatty acid
soaps. Alone, they strip the skin's natural oils right off. Another very common
saturated fat is palm oil. It is the go-to replacement for beef tallow for truly vegan
soaps. It is also a good fat when skin sensitivity to beef tallow is an issue.

The best ingredients to balance the saturated fats in a soap recipe are unsaturated
fats. By contrast, these are usually vegetable oils that are liquid at room
temperature and consist mainly of bent and branched-chain molecules. They have
the property of acting as emollients or moisturizers in soap recipes. In the right
proportions, they can effectively offset the drying qualities of saturated fats and
create a bar soap that is hard, white, sudsy, and conditioning as well.

One of the best conditioning oils is olive oil. It consists mainly of oleic acid, but
the conditioning action mostly comes from the unsaponifiable, which are organic
ingredients in the oil that are not acted upon by the alkali.

Shea butter is a buttery fat extracted from the African shea nut. Shea butter also
has the property of containing nonsaponifiable components. What this means is
has ingredients that will not chemically interact with alkalies to form soaps. The
main fatty acids are saturated stearic acid and unsaturated oleic acid.

Every oil has what is called a saponification number, which is determined by the
amount of alkali needed to completely saponify the oil. This number is
determined by titration of a test sample with a standardized alkali and acid/base
indicator.

4
 THEORY
The creation of esters was one of the first organic chemical processes that
prehistoric man was aware of. Oils and fats are fatty acid esters of glycerol, a
trihydroxy alcohol. The amount of potassium hydroxide milligrams needed to
neutralize the fatty acids created after 1 g of a sample was completely hydrolyzed
is the saponification value of an oil. Saponification is a chemical reaction that
results in the formation of soap, for instance: of soap. Saponification is the
hydrolysis of the hydrolysis of fats or oils for the extraction of glycerol and the

salt of the resulting fatty acid under simple conditions.

C3H5(C17H35COO)3 + 3KOH = C3H5(OH)3 + 3C17H35COOK

Stearin Glycerol Potassium stearate

The saponification value is inversely proportional to the mean of the molecular

weights of the fatty acids in the glycerides present because the esters of fatty acids
with lower molecular weights require more alkali for saponification. Since many
oils have somewhat comparable values, the saponification value is typically not
that helpful for identification. It is helpful for locating the presence of fats and
oils that have a high percentage of lower fatty acids.

The R is the alkyl group accompanying the ester which detaches to split into the
ion carboxylate which reacts with the potassium to form soap. While the R’ reacts
with the HO- to form alcohol.

5
Researchers have used several methods to saponify oils such as enzymatic
saponification using lipases from Aspergillus niger, Rhizopusjavanicus,
and Penicilliumsolitum , C. rugosa , and subcritical water. Historically, soaps
were produced by alkaline saponification of oils and fats, and this process is still
referred to as saponification. Soaps are now produced by neutralization of fatty
acids produced by fat splitting, but alkaline saponification may still be preferred
for heat-sensitive fatty acids. Nowadays, researchers have used potassium
hydroxide-catalysed hydrolysis of esters which is sometimes known as
saponification because of its relationship with soap making. There are two big
advantages of doing this. The reactions are one way rather than reversible, and
the products are easier to separate.
The saponification value (SV) or saponification number (SN) is the amount of
KOH or NaOH (in milligrams) needed to saponify one gram of fat at the given
conditions. It is a measurement of the overall sample's triglyceride fatty acids'
average molecular weight (or chain length).

The saponification number depends on the molecular weight and the percentage
concentration of fatty acid components present in the oil. The SV is effectively
used to determine the average relative molecular mass of oils and fats. Lauric oils,
with a higher percentage of ester bonds than longer chain oils, have a higher SV
(240–250 mg KOH/g for Coconut Oil compared to 187–195 mg KOH/g for Soya
Bean Oil). The distinction is quite relevant for biodiesel production in that oils
with a high SV require more methanol, and produce more glycerol but less
biodiesel than longer chain oils. Oils with high SN impart high foamability (e.g.
palm kernel, coconut and babassu oils).

6
 Table 6.3. Saponification number of vegetable oils (mg KOH/g)

Oil SN Oil SN

Babassu 241–253 Mustard 170–178

Camelina 185–194 Nahor 191

Canola 170–190 Olive 187–196

Cardoon 194 Palm 200–205

Cashew nut 168 Palm kernel 240–257

Castor 176–187 Peanut 184–196

Coconut 242–263 Poppy seed 189–197

Corn 187–196 Rapeseed 166–198

Cottonseed 190–207 Rubber seed 186–198

Indian mustard 171 Safflower 186–203

Jatropha 188–198 Sesame 188–193

Jojoba 92–95 Soybean 187–195

The reactions of saponification produce the fatty acids which is the first step in
most oleo chemical production. As the primary feedstock are oils and fats,
glycerol is produced as a valuable by product. Reaction routes and conditions
with efficient glycerol recovery are required to maximize the economics of large
scale production. Lipid saponification is usually carried out in the laboratory by
refluxing oils and fats with different catalysts. The reaction can be catalyzed by

7
acid, base or lipase but it also occurs as an uncatalyzed reaction between oil and
water at suitable temperatures and pressures.

The formula used to calculate for the saponification value of an oil is:

Saponification value (S.V)

56.1 × 𝑀𝑚 × (𝑉0 − 𝑉1 )
𝑆. 𝑉 =
𝑚

Where:

V0 = volume of HCl used in the blank titration in ml

V1= Volume of HCl used in the original titration in ml

Mm= Molarity of HCl mol/l

m= mass of oil in g.

Uses of Saponification:

 Wet chemical fire extinguishers: To extinguish cooking oils and fats, we

use a saponification reaction. This is because cooking oils and fats have a
flashpoint which is above 37 degrees which render regular fire
extinguishers useless.
 Creating hard and soft soaps: By using different types of alkali in the
process the type of reaction product can be altered between hard and soft.
 Using KOH: We can obtain soft soaps
 Using NaOH: We can obtain hard soaps.

Effects of saponification:
The effects of saponification can either be desirable or undesirable. Some of the
effects of saponification are mentioned in the below-given points;
 Fire extinguishers exhibit one of the saponification's most desired
outcomes. Wet chemical fire extinguishers use the process of
saponification to turn combustible fats and oils into soap that helps put out
fires. Also, because the process is endothermic, heat from the surroundings
is absorbed, lowering the temperature of the flames.

8
 Soaps formed are used in everyday life like sodium soaps are used for
laundry, potassium soaps are used for cleaning and lithium soaps are used
as lubricating greases. There are various other soaps which are used for
different purposes.
 Saponification can harm oil paintings, which is a bad thing. In oil paintings,
the heavy metal pigments react with the free fatty acid-containing oil to
produce soaps. In this manner, the artworks sustain progressive
degradation.

9
 DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

1. BURETTE:
For delivering known volumes of a liquid, particularly in titrations, a
burette is a graded glass tube with a tap at one end and a stopcock. The
liquid dispensing volume can be calculated using the graduated
markings on the burette tube. Moreover, it can be used to accurately
dispense small volumes of gas or liquid. Using a burette to precisely
quantify the amount of liquid utilized is also popular.

Figure 1: Burette
2. DROPPER:
Little volumes of liquid are distributed using droppers. When adding a
small amount and needing an accurate measurement, it is quite helpful.

Figure 2: Dropper

10
 3. BEAKER:
A beaker is generally a cylindrical container with a round bottom and most
include a small spout for pouring. A beaker’s main function is stirring,
mixing, and heating liquids.

Figure 3: Beaker
4. REAGENT BOTTLE: A reagent bottle, also called media bottle, is a
container made of glass, plastic or borosilicate or related substances, and
topped by special caps or stopper. They are intended to
contain chemicals in liquid for laboratories and stored in cabinets or on
shelves. They are designed to hold chemical liquids and solutions for long-
term storage.

Figure 4: Reagent bottle

11
5. WEIGHING BALANCE:
A digital weighing balance is a very accurate tool used in laboratories to
weigh items down to the milligram (0.001 g) level. Always place the
substance to be weighed in a container rather than placing it straight on the
scale. These are incredibly sensitive laboratory tools made for precise mass
measurement. Their readability ranges from 0.01 mg to 0.10 mg. The
weighing chamber or draft shield on analytical scales protects the
incredibly small samples from being impacted by air currents. The smallest
tremors or breeze can affect the results because they are designed to detect
very small changes. The majority of analytical balances can be calibrated
using external weights as well as an automatic internal motorized
calibration. The weights of the oil and KOH were calculated throughout
the experiment using the digital weighing balance.

Figure 5: Weighing (analytical) balance

12
6. MEASURING CYLINDER:
The measuring cylinder is made from hard glass and calibrated in
millilitres. It has a narrow cylindrical shape. It is also called a graduated
cylinder as it is marked with precise measurements. Each marked line on
the graduated cylinder represents the amount of liquid that has
been measured. A measuring cylinder is used in the laboratory for
measuring exact quantities of a liquid.

Figure 6: Measuring cylinder

7. FUNNEL:
A funnel is a tube or pipe that is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom.
It is used for guiding liquid or powder into a small opening. The funnel
was used to guide the KOH solution when pouring it into the burette during
the experiment.

13
 Figure 7: Funnel
8. REFLUX CONDENSER:
A reflux condenser is a device frequently used in organic chemistry to stop
reactant or solvent loss in a hot chemical process. A reflux system can be
used to stop solvent loss by evaporation for chemical processes that must
be carried out at high temperatures over extended periods of time.

Figure 8: Reflux condenser

14
9. RETORT STAND:
The typical retort stand consists of a heavy base and a vertical rod, both
usually made of metal. A retort stand, also called a clamp stand, a ring
stand, or a support stand, is a piece of scientific equipment intended
to support other pieces of equipment and glassware — for instance,
burettes, test tubes and flasks.

Figure 9: Retort stand

10. FLAT-BOTTOM CONICAL FLASK:

A glass conical flask has a flat, occasionally circular bottom and a short,
tubular neck. It is used to perform titrations or to alter liquids. The flask's
short neck and tapering sides enable swirling mixing of the contents
without the danger of spillage during titration. A conical flask can also be

15
 used for heating, mixing, receiving distilled liquids, watching reactions,
and short-term (a few hours) storage of fresh solutions.

Figure 10: Conical flask

MATERIALS USED

1. Phenolphthalein indicator
2. Absolute ethanol
3. Standard KOH
4. 1.0 g of Neem seed oil
5. 0.5M of HCL
6. 0.5M of alcoholic KOH

16
 PROCEDURE

Titration of Alcoholic KOH alone against HCL (blank titration)

1. 50 ml of the prepared alcoholic KOH was measured and poured into a
conical flask.
2. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added and it changed the
chalky white colour of the alcoholic KOH to purple colour.
3. 0.5M of hydrochloric acid (HCL) was poured into the burette using the
funnel.
4. The HCL was added gradually into the alcoholic KOH until it turned
colourless.
5. The final value was taken.

Titration of the Neem seed oil with Alcoholic KOH after refluxing against
HCL
1. A beaker was placed on top of the weighing balance and the weight was
zeroed.
2. A round bottom flask was placed on top of it and weighed A (149g) was
recorded.
3. One gram of oil was weighed and transferred into a flat bottom flask.
4. A dropper was used to put the oil sample into the flat-bottom flask until the
weight on the scale showed 150 g, meaning that 1 g of oil has been added.
5. 50 ml of the prepared alcoholic KOH was added to the oil and shaken well.
6. The mixture was taken to the reflux condenser.
7. The mixed was fixed to a reflux condenser and then taken to the heating
mantle and refluxed for an hour.
8. After the time had passed, the mixture was removed and 2 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator was added, changing the golden yellow colour
to amber/dark orange.

17
9. The 0.5mol of HCL in the burette was added gradually until there was a
colour change from amber/dark orange to undyed pale yellow.
10.The value where the change occurred was recorded.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

18
 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Weight of oil and bottle (A) = 150 g

Weight of bottle alone (B) = 149 g

Weight of oil taken (A-B) = 150 – 149

=1g

Strength of HCL = 0.5M

Table 1: Titration of alcoholic KOH alone against HCL (Blank titration)

Titre value (ml)

Final reading 34.60
Initial reading 0.00
TOTAL 34.60
Indicator used: Phenolphthalein.

Titre value of Alcoholic KOH alone against HCL (Y) = 34.60 ml

Table 2: Titration of Neem seed oil mixed with alcoholic KOH after refluxing
against HCL

Titre value (ml)

Final reading 26.70
Initial reading 0.00
TOTAL 26.70
Indicator used: Phenolphthalein

Titre value of the Neem seed Oil mixed with Alcoholic KOH after refluxing
against HCL (X) = 26.70 ml
Volume of HCL required to neutralise the excess alkali (Z) = Y-X

= 34.60 - 26.70
= 7.90 ml

19
After saponification = Z x M x 56.1

= 7.90ml x 0.5 (mol/1000ml) x 56.1(g/mol)

= 221.59 mg of alcoholic KOH

𝒁×𝑴×𝟓𝟔.𝟏
Therefore, saponification value =
(𝑨−𝑩)

𝟐𝟐𝟏.𝟓𝟗 𝒎𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑲𝑶𝑯
=
𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍

= 221.59mg of KOH/ g of oil

20
 DISCUSSION

The experiment was aimed at getting the saponification value of the samples of
oil given. The term has been defined previously as the mass in mg of potassium
hydroxide (KOH – commonly known as potash) needed to neutralize the free
fatty acids and saponify the esters contained in a gram of material. In the
experimental procedure, 5.6 g of KOH was measured and mixed with 200 ml of
absolute ethanol to get 0.5M of alcoholic KOH. 2 drops of phenolphthalein was
added and titrated against 0.5M of HCL and added gradually till there was a
colour change (Purple to colourless). The value on the burette was recorded and
termed as a blank titration because there was no sample of oil in it. Meanwhile.
1g of Neem seed oil mixed with alcoholic ethanol was put in the reflux condenser
for 1hour. Phenolphthalein indicator was added after it was removed and it
changed the colour from golden yellow to amber/dark orange. The mixture was
then titrated against HCL until there was a colour change and a value was gotten.

The saponification value of the Neem seed oil after calculations was gotten as
221.59 mg of KOH/g of oil. From literature, the standard saponification value for
the sample of oil used ranges between 187– 195 mg of KOH/g of oil. Comparing
the results with the standard SV for Soya oil and the result the previous set of
people got after performing this same experiment to the values gotten in this
report, it is observed that the value calculated in this report is a far cry from the
correct value.

Therefore, the experiment is a failed one. This means there are a lot of errors in
this experiment for the high value gotten. A source of error might come from the
titration of both the blank and Oil mixed with alcoholic KOH. The titration values
were not taken with accuracy and this is an important aspect of the saponification
value formula. The values gotten were not taken at the exact point the colour
change occurred.

21
Another source of error might come from the preparation of the KOH solution.
The KOH pellets weight was taken on the digital scale and it was not the exact
weight of 5.6 g that was used. The weight used was 5.63 g. That small increment,
though not looking significant, can affect the solution that was prepared and affect
the end point of the titration.

The significance of the saponification value is as follows:

 One major application of the saponification reaction is in soap making.

Saponification value is a very important aspect of that reaction. The higher
the saponification value, the lower the fatty acids average length, the lighter
the mean molecular weight of triglycerides and vice-versa. Practically, fats
or oils with high saponification value (such as coconut and palm oil) are
more suitable for soap making. This value helps to know which oil would
produce the highest quality of soaps.

 Saponification Value is quite relevant for biodiesel production in that oils

with a high SV require more methanol, and produce more glycerol but less
biodiesel than longer chain oils.

 It is important to the industrial user for it helps to know the amount of free
fatty acid that is present in a food material. The quantity of free fatty acid
can be distinguished by determining the quantity of alkali that must be added
to the fat or oil to make it neutral. This test is done by warming a known
amount of oil or fat with alcoholic KOH, which will convert the free fatty
acid into soap.

 It aids in the creation of biodiesel. The reaction's byproduct, soap, needs

to be removed from biodiesel. The synthesis of soap and biodiesel in

22
organic chemistry relies on the processes of transesterification,
esterification, and saponification. Generally speaking, esterification is the
process by which carboxylic acids are changed into esters using acids and
alcohols. Transesterification, on the other hand, is the process by which an
organic group found in an ester is swapped out for an organic group made
from an alcohol. A catalyst, usually in the form of an acid or basic, is
employed to carry out this reaction. The subsequent step, known as
saponification, involves adding an aqueous alkali, heat, and oil or fat to
produce soap and alcohol. Vegetable oil, which can be replenished, is the
oil used. Added to usage of vegetable oil that is encouraged because the
product, biodiesel, is utilized as an energy alternative. Thus, biodiesel
reduces the dependence on fossil fuels.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TAKEN

 Much care was taken when measuring the oil sample to ensure that the
oil drops entered the beaker directly and not on the side.
 Care was taken to avoid spilling any of the chemical compounds on the
skin
 The weight of the beaker was reset to zero before weighing the round-
bottom flask and oil to avoid zero error.
 The lower meniscus was read while taking the readings on the burette
to obtain precise measurements.
 A small beaker was used to weigh the oil to ensure the total weight was
within the capacity of the weighing balance.
 Care was taken to avoid parallax error when taking the readings on the
measuring.

23
 CONCLUSION

It is concluded from the results that 221.59 mg of KOH/1g of oil is the amount of
potassium hydroxide that will react with one gram of Neem seed oil. This sample
of oil can be used to make quality soap because of its high saponification value.

Additionally, the titre value from the blank titration using only the alcoholic
potassium hydroxide is expected to be higher than the titre value of the first
titration because the blank titration uses the entire amount of potassium hydroxide
used, whereas the other titration uses the excess potassium hydroxide, from which
the volume of potassium hydroxide that reacted would be determined by
subtracting the titre values of the hydrochloric acid obtained from the two
titrations.

24
 RECOMMENDATION

These are my recommendation for future experiments having the same aim to
achieve accuracy and save time:

 The oils used in the experiment should be fresh samples of oils

 The reagent should be freshly prepared to prevent contamination so as to

ensure accuracy in the experiment.

 I recommend that constant water supply be made available to prevent

obstruction during reflux.

 The experiment should not only be limited to cooking oils. As chemical

engineers, we would be working on a large scale with different types of
raw materials.
 It should be announced prior to the experiment that students should browse
deeply about the topic so that the instructor would not spend a lot of time
explaining. This would save time and give the students enough time to
carry out the experiment accurately.

25
 REFRENCES

1. Saroja Joshi and Vidhu Aeri, 2009. ‘Practical pharmacognosy’. 1 st edition,

published by Frank Bros & Co. Page 296
2. Cavitch, Susan Miller, 1994. ‘The natural soap book’.
3. Willcox Michael, 2000. ‘Poucher’s perfumes, cosmetics and soap’. 10 th
edition.
4. JIS K 0070-1992 Test Method for Acidity, Saponification value, Ester
value, Iodine value and Hydroxyl value of Chemical products and
Unsaponifiables.
5. Klaus Schumann, Kurt Siekmann, “Soaps” (2005). Ullmann’s
Encyclopedia of industrial Chemistry.

6. Kucek, K. T. 2007. Ethanolysis of refined soybean oil assisted by sodium

and potassium hydroxides. J. American Oil Chem. Soc.

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 APPENDIX

SV = SAPONIFICATION VALUE

SN = SAPONIFICATION NUMBER

g/mol= GRAM PER MOLE

g oil = GRAM OF OIL

ml= MILLILITERS

X1 = INITIAL TITRE VALUE

X2 = FINAL TITRE VALUE

X = VOLUME OF KOH USED TO NEUTRALISE THE ACID IN THE OIL

Yml = Titre value of HCl against KOH alone after reflux

𝑍 × 𝑀 × 56.1
Saponification value is given by:
(𝐴−𝐵)

Where 56.1 grams is the molar mass of the KOH use

KOH = POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE

M = MOLAR CONCENTRATION

A = WEIGHT OF OIL

HCL – HYDROCHLORIC ACID

◦F= FARENHEIT DEGREE

mg = MILLIGRAM

mg KOH = MILLIGRAMOF POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE

mol = MOLE

ASTM = AMERICAN STANDARD TEST METHOD

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