Exam 1 / Unit 1 Review by Notes Sets

Notes 1 – Activity: Lady Tasting Tea

 This activity was an introduction to statistical thinking and making decisions using data
 This activity was also an introduction to sampling distributions through repeated random sampling
 We simulated the sampling distribution assuming the null hypothesis was true (Dr. Bristol was just
guessing) to determine how unusual it was for the lady to be able to correctly guess whether milk or tea
was added first when presented with 8 cups

Notes 2 –Descriptive Statistics/Graphs

 Understand the differences between population and sample and between descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics
 Understand and recognize the difference between quantitative and qualitative variables
 Know the two measures of central tendency (mean, median); know how they are calculated
 Understand the relationship between the mean and median when a distribution is symmetric or skewed
 Know the four measures of spread or dispersion we discussed (variance, standard deviation, range, IQR)
 Know that Z-scores are a measure of relative position; understand what Z-scores tell us
 Know how to read and interpret graphical representations of data (boxplots and histograms); know
which numbers comprise a boxplot
 Know how to use graphs to describe the shape of a distribution

Notes 3 – Introduction to SAS

 Understand the difference between a dataset, variable, and an observation

 Know how to create a dataset in SAS (data; input; cards)
 Know how to distinguish between numeric and character (text) variables in a dataset
 Remember that semi-colons go at the end of each line of code (except within the lines of data)
 Know which SAS procedures could be used to generate summary descriptive statistics
 Know how and when to use the “class” statement
 Understand why it’s important to learn to code – reproducible results when analyzing data!

Notes 4 – Activity: White/Yellow Exams

 This activity was an introduction to the logic of hypothesis testing and making decisions using data
 This activity was also an introduction to sampling distributions through repeated random sampling
 This activity was an introduction to a formal null hypothesis statement, and p-values
 We simulated a sampling distribution to estimate a p-value to determine how unusual our observed
data were if the null hypothesis of no difference between the White and Yellow Exams was true

Notes 4b – Experiments vs. Observational Studies

 If researchers want to find the relationship between an exposure and a response/outcome variable of
interest, understand that in an experiment researchers (randomly) assign the exposure while in
observational studies researchers merely observe the exposure.
 Know the two main biases that randomization is able to help prevent: selection bias and confounding.
 Know the 3 main benefits of randomization in an experiment
 Understand some potential problems with doing randomized experiments/trials in some cases
 Know the difference between unblinded, single-blinded, and double-blinded randomized trials.
 Understand the differences, and different purposes, between randomization and random sampling.
Notes 5 – Sampling Distributions and the t-distribution

 Know the difference between sample statistics and population parameters

 Understand that the sampling distribution is the distribution of a sample statistic obtained through
repeated random sampling (like we did in activities)
 Understand that the Central Limit Theorem indicates that the sampling distribution of the sample mean
will be a normal distribution for “large” samples regardless of how the population is distributed
 Know the three different t-tests, scenarios in which each would be used, and assumptions for each
 Understand that the test statistic, t, is a measure of relative position (just like a z-score)
 Be familiar with the t distribution, know that total area under the curve is 1, shape of curve is based on
degrees of freedom
 Know what the SAS code should look like to find a p-value (area) under the t distribution
 Know how to use a p-value to make a decision about a hypothesis test

Notes 6 – Inference, Hypothesis Testing

 Know that when conducting a hypothesis test, we assume the null hypothesis is true
 Know how to write a hypothesis statement for a one sample, paired samples, and 2 independent
samples t-test
 Know what the symbols used in each of the test statistic calculations represent
 Know how to draw a picture to represent the p-value (and know the definition of a p-value)
 Know how to interpret, in context, the conclusion to the hypothesis test based on the p-value

Notes 7 – t-test activities

 Be able to identify one sample, paired samples, and two independent samples problems
 Know how to write the null and alternative hypothesis statements for each type of problem
 Know which test statistic to use for each type of problem (and be able to calculate it given the formula)
 Know how to sketch the curve to indicate the p-value
 Know how to use a test statistic to find a p-value (using SAS)
 Know how to use the p-value to draw a conclusion and interpret the conclusion

Notes 8 – Two-sided (two-tailed) Tests

 Understand that a 2-sided p-value is the sum of both tails

 Know how to determine whether the hypothesis test is right-tailed, left-tailed, or 2-tailed
 Know how to sketch the curve to indicate the p-value
 Know how to use a test statistic to find a p-value (using SAS)
 Know how to use the p-value to draw a conclusion and interpret the conclusion

Notes 9 – Using SAS for Hypothesis Testing

 Know generally what the SAS code should look like for a one sample, paired sample, and 2 independent
samples t-test
 Know how to specify the null hypothesis value and also how to specify whether the alternative
hypothesis is right tailed, left tailed, or 2-tailed in Proc TTest
 Know how to find the test statistic and p-value from the SAS output
 Know how to use the p-value to draw a conclusion and interpret the conclusion