CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Undoubtedly, a number of difficult difficulties and concerns are being grappled with or
enmeshed in the Nigerian educational system. One of these problems is the authoritarianism of
teachers. Teachers acting in a despotic manner in the classroom is known as instructors
despotism. The circumstance is best described as one in which the teacher forces his or her
teaching on the pupils without any input from them.

A common sign of the teaching sickness known as "teacher's tyranny" is the style and approach
teachers take when doing their duties as educators (Balogun, 2004). A teacher-student
relationship that is narrative displays this despotic condition. It is a teaching syndrome that
favors narrative education and makes students memorably repeat the content that the narrator has
told (despotic teacher). Despotic professors oppose students' freedom by conflating their own
professional power with the authority of knowledge. Some teachers love using their position of
authority, detest discussion, and favor a calm environment over one that is chaotic. They reject
student contributions and are resistant to criticism. They regard pupils as wayward persons who
need control and have a tendency to employ punishment rather than reward; as a result, they do
not permit freedom in the classroom. Also, the curriculum and all activities reflect the teacher's
preferences. They oppose the curriculum's flexibility and detest conducting study that will
advance and broaden their expertise. Despotic teachers typically feed their students dead material
that has no connection to their present life experiences because they find comfort in the repeating
of long-outdated curricula. They violate accepted norms in order to determine what is right and
wrong. There are no democratic or practical safeguards for the teaching style or other classroom
activities under autocratic teachers.

Teachers serve as catalysts for societal progress as well as intellectual, socioeconomic, scientific,
and technical advancement. As a result, preparation for quality service delivery and teacher
education are essential parts of the nation's educational system. The educational system suffers as
a result of a tyrannical teacher's mentality.

1
According to Balogun, "a dictatorial syndrome usually observed in the approach and mode of
teaching used by teachers while performing their professional obligations" shows itself in a
"typically narrative teacher-student relationship." (2004) Balogun He continues by saying that;

Narrative education is embraced by teachers' despotism as

a teaching syndrome, which causes students to memorably
repeat the narrator's content (despotic teacher). Despotism
turns students into empty cans that the teacher must fill. A
despotic teacher fills the receptacles more fully the better
the teacher he is. The better students are depositories, and
the teacher is the depositor, the more meekly the containers
or receptacles accept being filled. Instead of
communicating, the teacher issues decrees and sends out
communiqués, which the students unmistakably take in,
remember, and repeat. Despotic teachers pose as their
necessary polar opposite to students; by assuming that their
students are completely ignorant, they justify their own
existence and authority. Similar to the slave in Hegel's
dialectic, alienated students accept their ignorance as a
defense for the existence of the teacher; however, unlike
the slave, they never learn that they can educate their
teachers (Balogun, 2004).
From the foregoing, it is obvious that autocratic professors will have a profoundly bad effect on
the educational system and obstruct the understanding of the purpose of education. Viewing from
several perspectives, idealism maintains that the purpose of education is to identify and nurture
each student's particular talents, which cannot be done in the presence of authoritarian
professors. The purpose of education is to prepare the world's practical man, which realistically
speaking cannot be done by the dictatorship of teachers. According to existentialism, education
should support a person's quest for self-knowledge rather than serving as a teacher's dictatorship.
The purpose of education, seen from a pragmatist's point of view, is to guide students' impulses,
skills, and interests toward passing down the social background and dynamic outlook of the
society to younger generations as well as to cultivate a dynamic and adaptable mind for the
purposes of creating values to solve contemporary issues. It is crucial to achieve this goal.

A dictatorial teacher's behaviors have a significant negative impact on student morale, which
lowers their motivation to read, study, and learn. The teaching style of a tyrannical teacher does
not prepare students for the future or even for society. In agreement with the pragmatist concept,
education has also been described as the process of learning in order to address societal concerns.

2
Furthermore, a tyrant professor's methods of instruction seldom give pupils the skills they need
to deal with social problems.

Teachers' despotism has a big impact on students because it never inspires them to study well,
especially those who have trouble understanding subjects. Examining how a tyrannical teacher
forbids questions and involvement. As a result, it might be stated that the pupils aren't actually
involved in the lesson; rather, the teacher merely gives instructions and expects them to take
them in. New ideas, especially those from students, are not welcomed.

The aforementioned comments are the greatest summaries of the Nigerian educational system; it
has greatly ignored its objective and permitted it to come to a disastrous conclusion. A nation
could end up ignoring its educational system. Nigeria has allowed its educational system to
become stagnant. Having a tyrannical teacher mentality had a variety of negative repercussions
on our country's culture. First off, kids in contemporary Nigerian schools are not given the
independence they need to succeed. It keeps people away from profitable industrial and
agricultural enterprises. Every educated individual is steered toward white-collar, pen-pushing
employment, the unproductive world of politicians, cutthroat commerce, acquiring through
deception, fraudulent contract awards, and, more recently, the highly profitable activity of
kidnapping for ransom. The inability of the educational system to equip pupils to be autonomous
in their life pursuits is also attributable to teachers' refusal to recognize each student's interests
and failing to develop them correctly. It is important to match what is being taught to what the
students are learning. For instance, what they know, where they're from, what they're interested
in, how they feel about certain things, what they can do, their abilities, their strengths, and their
flaws. Instead of frustrating students, teachers should make them feel like they have
accomplished something.

All of them are in opposition to John Dewey's theory, which holds that the only way to
rehabilitate society is via education. As a result, he is an advocate of practice-based learning,
which combines theory and practice. Many people who consider themselves to be educated are
unable to use what they learnt in school to resolve social problems. As a result, a variety of
problems, including as illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, starvation, and diseases, are currently
being faced by our society. We need a system of education that will enable people to overcome

3
obstacles in life, find jobs, and successfully apply their education for the good of their own
society.

Dewey believed that "true education comes through the stimulation of the child's power by the
demands of the social conditions he finds himself in" (Dewey, 1937).

As a result, it requires accumulating and using ideas to address social problems. Experimentation
and application are key components of true education. It entails more than only remembering or
retaining immaterial or unconnected facts. Students explore their interests at their own speed
while progressively recognizing their areas of expertise during the discovery process that is
learning. Students must choose which course to take based on their interests and long-term
professional aspirations, much to how optional courses are chosen in colleges.

His main goal is an educational system that is democratic in nature. Dewey refers to the notion
that self-realization can only be realized via education when people discover a way to employ
their special gifts for the benefit of their community as his "democratic conception" (Dewey,
1961). In a democratic society, a teacher's job is to assist pupils develop the qualities, routines,
and virtues that will enable them to reach their maximum potential. But in Nigeria, education is
seen as a way to earn diplomas and certificates, which, while valuable as a symbol, are
insufficient. So, Dewey's theories are still applicable today. They are still valuable in today's
society. Modern science and technology actually improve our quality of life by allowing us to
apply our intelligence to the outside world and by allowing us to employ our practical talents to
improve our human conditions. They frequently foretell both positive and negative outcomes if
man does not regulate them through practical wisdom. In order to overcome the problem of
teacher despotism in the Nigerian educational system, the pragmatist school of thought needs to
be researched and put into practice.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

The purpose of this work is to examine pragmatism as panacea to the problem of teacher's
despotism in Nigeria educational system.

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

4
This paper will discuss the application of pragmatist thought to the problem of teacher despotism
in the Nigerian educational system, with a focus on John Dewey's pragmatism.

1.4 THESIS

The thesis of this essay contends that the pragmatism method of teaching should be used to
address the issue of teacher despotism in the Nigerian educational system.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The methods to be adopted in this essay are conceptual clarification, evaluative, critical and
analytical methods of research.

1.6 SOURCES

The source of material for this essay shall be the libraries of Olabisi Onabanjo University,
University of Ibadan, Books, Journal Articles World Wide Web (www), other Electronic Sources
and personal communication with my project supervisor and other academicians.

CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Statement of The Problem

1.2 Statement of Purpose

1.3 Scope and Limitations

1.4 Thesis

1.5 Methodology

1.6 Sources

CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION OF PRAGMATISM

5
2.1 Concept of Pragmatism

2.2 William James Pragmatism Though

2.3 Charles Sandra Pierce Pragmatic Thought

2.4 John Dewey Pragmatism

CHAPTER THREE: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION OF TEACHER'S DESPOTISM

3.1 Conceptual Clarification of Teacher's Despotism

3.2 Causes of Teacher's Despotism

3.3 Effect of Teacher's Despotism

3.4 Concept of Education

CHAPTER FOUR: PRAGMATISM AS A PANACEA TO THE PROBLEM OF

TEACHER'S DESPOSTIM IN NIGERIA EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Pragmatism As A Panacea To The Problem Of Teacher's Despotism In Nigeria Educational

System

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

5.2 Conclusion

6
 REFERENCES

Balogun O. A. (2004), The efficacy of pragmatism in resolving teachers’despotism in Nigerian

educational system. P.2

Dewey J. (1937), New York: Henry Holt & Company, Democracy and Education: An
introduction to the Philosophy of Education.

Dewey J. (1961), Democracy and Education, Macmillan Press: London.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION OF PRAGMATISM

2.1 CONCEPT OF PRAGMATISM

A fairly broad philosophical school known as pragmatism views knowing the world as being
inseparable from agency within it. This general idea has drawn a remarkably rich and at times
contradictory range of interpretations, including: that all philosophical concepts should be tested
through scientific experimentation; that a claim is true if and only if it is useful; that experience
consists in interacting with nature rather than merely representing it; and that articulate language
rests on a deep bed of meaning.

According to its etymology, the word "pragmatism" comes from the Greek word "Pragma,"
which denotes activity or completed task. According to some other academics, the word
"pragmatism" is derived from the Greek word "Pragmatikos," which signifies utility or
practicability. Hence, practicality and utility are given a lot of weight in this ideology.
Experimentalism and consequentialism are other names for pragmatism. The reason it is termed
experimentation is because pragmatists think that experiment is the only valid standard of truth.
They view "truth," "reality," "goodness," and "badness" as all being relative concepts. These
ideas are not fixed and unchangeable. These have been demonstrated by human experience.
Also, pragmatists think that there are numerous emerging truths. Man only conducts his own
experiments and experiences his own experiments and experiences when researching these
subjects. Hence, only claims that can be supported by experiments are accepted as true.

Ornstein and Levine define pragmatism as "one school of thought that is focused on observation
and experimentation like empiricism but goes beyond to assert that whatever is genuine is what
is able to provide answers to current issues" (Akpan and Apologun, 2015). Pragmatism places
greater emphasis on action than thought, emphasizing the practical rather than the theoretical.

8
For this reason, Oroka refers to pragmatism as "the philosophy of workability" (Akpan and
Apologun, 2015).

About 1870 saw the birth of pragmatism in the United States; now, it offers a third, increasingly
popular option to both analytical and "Continental" philosophical traditions worldwide. The so-
called "classical pragmatists," Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), who originally articulated
and defended the viewpoint, and his close friend and coworker William James (1842–1910), who
advanced and skillfully promoted it, were responsible for its first generation. James employed
these ideas to investigate the essence of truth in religion, but pragmatists at the time placed a lot
of emphasis on theorizing inquiry, meaning, and truth. Under the enormous influence of John
Dewey (1859–1952) and his friend Jane Addams (1860–1935), who created the field of social
work as an expression of pragmatist ideas, a second (still referred to as "classical") generation
shifted pragmatist philosophy more explicitly towards politics, education, and other aspects of
social improvement (and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931). George Herbert Mead
(1863–1931), who made substantial contributions to the social sciences by creating pragmatist
perspectives on the interactions between the self and the community, was also very significant at
this time (Mead 1934). Pragmatism's hold on philosophy departments in most Anglo-American
countries was challenged as analytic philosophy flourished and took over as the predominant
methodological orientation as the ensuing progressive Deweyan "New Deal" era ended and the
US entered the Cold War. C.I. Lewis and W.V.O. Quine are two transitional or "third
generation" philosophers who, despite developing a number of pragmatist themes, are clearly
analytic in their emphasis on theory of knowledge as the foundation of philosophy (which
Dewey scorned as "the epistemological industry").

Notwithstanding this decline in prominence, the pragmatist tradition has had a strong resurgence
since the 1970s. Richard Rorty (1931–2007) intentionally adopted pragmatism to address what
he perceived to be the fundamental error of orthodox epistemology: the erroneous notion that
language and thought'mirror' the world. A number of significant contemporary philosophers have
contributed to the so-called neo-pragmatism that Rorty's daring and iconoclastic attacks on this
"representationalism" gave birth to (e.g. Hilary Putnam, Robert Brandom and Huw Price).
Rorty's repudiation of truth as a subject best left undiscussed (Rorty 1982) has drawn criticism
from other pragmatists, who have worked to revive the traditional pragmatic ideal of objectivity

9
(e.g. Susan Haack Christopher Hookway and Chery Misak). The term "New Pragmatists" is now
occasionally used to describe these thinkers. Others, however, have attempted to situate
pragmatist ideas in a broader Western philosophical framework. For example, they have traced
Peirce's substantial debt to Kant (Apel 1974; Gava 2014); they have also drawn parallels between
pragmatism and 19th-century idealism (Margolis 2010, Stern 2009). Nonetheless, the
progressive social aspirations of classical pragmatism persisted in some circles. Cornel West
made significant contributions to the philosophy of race by advancing a prophetic pragmatism
that drew on both Christian and Marxist theory (e.g. West 1989). The pragmatist tradition is also
the intellectual home of a variety of other liberatory philosophical initiatives in fields including
feminism (Seigfried 1996), ecology (Alexander 2013), Native American philosophy (Pratt 2002),
and South American philosophy (Pappas 1998).

2.1.1 Principles of Pragmatism

Singh identify the principles of pragmatism which are;

The changing nature of truth: Pragmatists reject the concept of absolute truth. According to
them, truth is context-dependent and can shift at any time. They also contend that what is true for
one person at one time and in one location does not have to be true for anyone else at any other
time or in any other location. As a result, something that was true for someone yesterday may not
be true for him today or tomorrow. In a nutshell, pragmatism holds that truth shifts with time,
place, and circumstance (Adeleye, 2017).

Truth is formed by its results According to pragmatics, truth is not something that can be
identified and defined. It's a fluid concept that can change as a person grows and adapts to new
situations. This is because different situations necessitate different approaches and solutions.
Only one of them can be considered true if it helps to solve the problem and produce the desired
results. As a result, pragmatists insist that a result constitutes or constructs a truth. The only
things that can be considered true for each individual are those that help them grow as people
while also serving the greater good (Adeleye, 2017).

Democratic social value: Pragmatism holds that man is fundamentally social. He is socialized
from birth and grows up within and within society. As a result, pragmatics promote democratic
social attitudes and values. Pragmatism was also emphasized by the pragmatists. There is

10
nothing wrong with doing something that benefits others. It is inappropriate, incorrect, and false
if it serves no purpose. In other words, as long as it serves a practical purpose for man, anything
can be true. Truth exists because it serves a function.(Adeleye, 2017).

Placing high premium on activity: They (the pragmatists) also placed a high value on action.
The reason for this is that in their view, thoughts emerge from doing. Man learns as he goes
along because he is a doing creature. As a result, the most significant contribution of pragmatism
to education is the concept of learning by doing (Adeleye, 2017).

2.2 WILLIAM JAMES PRAGMATISM THOUGHT

Williams James (1842-1910) was a psychologist, physician and philosopher. He wrote

voluminously throughout his life but he gained uncommon fame with his work “Principles of
psychology” William James's Principles of Psychology almost never appeared, for its publisher
John Fiske with the assignment in 1878. Fiske who rarely fumbled an opportunity to appear in
print on any subject, with unusual modesty referred Holt to his friend James, whom he said was
much better prepared to undertake such a work.

The central idea of William James’s pragmatist theory of meaning – or “pragmatic method” – is
entailed in his famous question: “What difference would it practically make to anyone if this
notion rather than that notion were true?” (Henrik, 2009). To find out what our conceptions
mean, we need to “trace [their] respective practical consequences” (Henrik, 2009). If, despite
differing verbal expressions, two conceptions or theories result in the same practical effects, they
are one and the same conception differently formulated. And a conception is meaningless, if no
such practical consequences can be traced. However, consideration of James’s particular
applications of the pragmatic method has led to a varying interpretations and even some
confusion about how James understood the central concept of “practical consequences”.
Lovejoy’s most central distinction, however, is between two ways of understanding James’s
pragmatist theory of meaning. Lovejoy argues that James’s pragmatism is plagued with
confusion between two completely different conceptions of “practical consequences,” and,
consequently, two completely distinct criteria of meaning.

Further, Lovejoy is pleased with neither of these criteria. According to him, the first criterion is
too limiting and “positivistic,” while the second criterion is, in Lovejoy’s words, “so inclusive a

11
doctrine that it can deny real meaning to no proposition whatever which any human being has
ever cared enough about to believe” (Henrik, 2009).

At least three considerations lend support to the distinction Lovejoy draws. Firstly, James’s
presentations of his pragmatist theory of meaning might be seen to suggest there is a duality of
some sort embedded in his view. For example, in Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology James defined pragmatism as

The doctrine that the whole “meaning” of a conception

expresses itself in its practical consequences either in the
shape of conduct to be recommended, or in that of
experiences to be expected, if the conception be true ...
(Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology).

The either/or distinction James here draws might be interpreted as an endorsement of the view
that some conceptions may be meaningful although their truth does not predict anything about
future experience. Secondly, in some passages James seems to hold pragmatically meaningful
also such conceptions that allow of no experiential predictions.

For example, in the concluding lecture of Pragmatism, he points out that the use of theconcept
of the Absolute – like the Atman of Vivekananda – is, in James’s words, “indeed not a scientific
use, for we can make no particular deductions from it”; rather, it is “emotional and spiritual
altogether”. Still, James seems to hold that the concept of Absolute meets the pragmatist criteria
of concepts with “practical consequences”. Thirdly, James himself acknowledged the validity of
Lovejoy’s criticism. Prior to the publication of his 1908 article, Lovejoy had sent James a
lengthy letter describing his doubts about the tenability of pragmatism and presenting his
distinction between two types of “practical consequences.” In his response, James admits that
the “consequences of true ideas per se, and consequences of ideas qua believed by us, are
logically different consequences ... (Oyenuga, 2014).

James’s own application of his pragmatic method, however, has turned out to be prone to invite
questions of what exactly he understood by the central notion of “practical consequences.”
Already in 1908, Arthur O. Lovejoy proposed that James confounds two incongruent criteria of
the meaningfulness of propositions (Henrik, 2009). According to the first criterion, a proposition
is meaningful if it refers or predicts future experiences regardless of whether the proposition is

12
believed or not; according to the second, a proposition is meaningful if belief in that proposition
results in some experiences on the part of the believer, despite the fact no predications by way of
future experiences can be deduced from its truth. Many sympathetic commentators have since
followed Lovejoy’s example in holding that there is a duality inherent to James’s pragmatism
about meaning. Consequently, James has often been regarded as allowing for merely subjective
emotions and interests to play a role in the pragmatist determination of not only the meaning but
the truth of the proposition.

The whole idea of pragmatism as seen in James' contribution is that idea, beliefs and
philosophies should be judged by their results. Indeed, this philosophy of pragmatism is
grounded on a philosophy of action. He argues that we can evaluate action better by their results
than by their intentions or by their origins. He writes we need only determine what conduct it is
fitted to produce: that conduct is for us its sole significance (Oyenuga, 2014).

In a clear statement if what pragmatism is all about, especially with reference to metaphysics,
James write;

The pragmatics notion rather known than the notion were

true? If no practical difference whatever can be traced,
then the alternatives mean practically the same thing and
all dispute is idle. Whenever a dispute is serious, we ought
to be able to show some practical difference that must
follow from one site or the others being right (Oyenuga,
2014).
James further enlighten us that the term Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word, pragma,
meaning action, from which our words practice and practical comes. It was first introduced into
Philosophy by Charles Sandra pierce in 1878 in an article entitled How to make our ideas clear'.
Pierce point out that “our beliefs are really rules for action, said that to develop a thought's
meaning, we need only determine what conduct it is fitted to produce. To attain perfect clearance
in our thoughts of a. Object, then we only need only consider the effect of a practical kind
(Oyenuga, 2014).

James argues emphatically on the point that to take in the importance or pierce's principle one
must get accustomed to applying it to concrete cases. He points out:

13
 I found a few years ago that Ostward the illustrialist
Leipeig chemist had been making perfectly distinct use of
the principle of pragmatism in his lecture on the
Philosophy of science, though he had not called it by that
name. All reality influenced our practice and that influence
is their meaning for us....I am accustomed to putting
questions across to my class in this way (Oyenuga, 2014).
One of the key points of James’ thought is that to have a clear and complete conception of an
object is equivalent to considering the practical empirical effects and properties of the object and
the conduct it will produce. James acknowledges Charles Peirce for introducing this way of
thinking about belief. He writes thus:

It was Peirce notion that to attain perfect clearness in our

thought of an object then we need only consider what
conceivable effects of a practical kind the object may
involve – what sensations we are to expect from it and
what reactions we must prepare. . . . Furthermore, to
develop a thought’s meaning, we need only determine
what conduct is for us or sole significance (Oyenuga,
2014).
William James gives a short account to explain the pragmatic method, especially, its usefulness
in resolving a metaphysical dispute. He describes a hypothetical situation in which a man is
trying to see a squirrel that is climbing on a tree. No matter how quickly he goes not manage to
move as quickly as the squirrel that is going around in opposite direction, keeping tree between
himself and the man (Merrily, 1970).

In development of James’ pragmatism it is also noted that theories are not amend in themselves,
but a means to an end. Theories do become instrument, not answer to enigmas in which we can
rest.

2.3 CHARLES SANDRA PIERCE PRAGMATIC THOUGHT

Charles Sanders Peirce was an American logician, mathematician, philosopher, and semiotician
(1839-1914). He never held an academic position or published a book. Nonetheless, many people
regard Peirce as the philosophical forefather of pragmatism. Peirce regarded pragmatism
primarily as a theory of meaning. He intended for it to be diametrically opposed to various forms

14
of idealism, forcing academic study to consider the practical implications of its assumptions
(Gallie, 1975).

According to Charle, pragmatism is a method for determining what "hard words" and "abstract
concepts" actually mean (Gallie, 1975). Charles goes on to say that pragmatism is a method of
determining the significance of abstract ideas (Gallie, 1975). The method was created to answer
and ultimately dismiss a subset of long-standing metaphysical puzzles. Charles proposes
pragmatism as a strategy for assessing the truth of claims by considering how they might be
modified in the future to influence behavior and convictions. Charles Peirce is distinguished
from James and early John Dewey by his more realistic and reason-based outlook. Maxwell Lyn
describes Charles Peirce's pragmatism analysis as follows:

Peirce first articulated his pragmatist philosophy in "How

to Make Our Thoughts Explicit" in 1878. He presents a
guiding principle that promotes the highest level of
conceptual clarity possible. According to Peirce,
pragmatism is a method for distinguishing merely
conceptual confusions, such as those caused by purely
formal differences that are irrelevant in practice (Peirce,
1878).
The term "pragmatism" appears in the title of two of Peirce's 1905 works, and it appears in the
body of several more papers and fragments from the same year. Peirce's goal in coining the term
"Pragmaticism" was clear: he wanted to distance himself and his original concept from the
popular and anti-intellectualist "Pragmaticism" of James, Schiller, Papini, and others (Gallie,
1975). Peirce's works on Pragmatism lend themselves to two distinct interpretations. Pragmatism
is defined as a "means of logic," "a way of discerning the meanings of hard words and abstract
conceptions," and "a method of identifying the meaning of intellectual concepts, that is, those
upon which reasoning may rest."

Charles and Sandra Pierce advocate for a substantial and deep democratic theory that is also
open to acceptable plurality. He provides a scientifically supported rationale for democratic rule.
As a result, it is proper to present it as follows:

(i) Accepting the truth of statement "p" implies that one "believes" p.

(ii) Believe P if you are convinced that it can withstand logic and empirical evidence.

15
(iii) To believe that a belief can withstand such scrutiny is to set about justifying that belief.

(iv) Squaring one's views with reason and facts is an ongoing social endeavor that necessitates
participation in an investigational community (Oyenuga, 2014).

To summarize, Pierce's epistemic support for democracy stems directly from these principles,
and one should support a democratic order because only in a democracy can one live up to one's
epistemic commitment. Our investigation requires free speech, free information, open decoding,
and access to decision-making institutions, among other things. Because the goal of justification
includes checking one's beliefs against the broadest possible pool of reason, experiences, and
concerns, inquiry necessitates standards commonly associated with radical democratic ideals,
such as participation, inclusion, and acknowledgement (Oyenuga, 2014).

Piecean democracy and Deweyanism both get to the heart of human interaction. It has a vast
range and extent. Robert Tallise mentions this viewpoint, which can be explained as follows:

The piercian argument has several institutional

implications. Before an investigation can begin, formal
democratic institutions must be in place. Press freedom,
regular elections, a transparent electoral system, and a
written constitution are all required. Democracy may also
necessitate additional actions, such as the protection of
public spaces and the establishment of venues where
citizens can be exposed to opposing viewpoints (Oyenuga,
2014).
Simply put, the connection between democracy and pragmatism is neither conceptual nor
accidental. Instead, there is an ontological link between the two that, if severed too abruptly,
would call democracy's veracity as a method of government into question. Because beliefs are
rules for action, we must first determine the type of behavior they are likely to inspire in order to
construct a nuanced interpretation. To gain insight into the matter at hand, it is sufficient to study
the object's practical effects. (Peirce, 1878).

2.3.1 Charles Peirce Interpretation On Pragmatism

Peirce approaches the theory of meaning through pragmatism. He claims that we only need to
consider the object's associated routines to fully grasp its concept. Pierce exemplifies pragmatism

16
by arguing that a belief about an object is meaningful if it allows the organism to predict the
experiences it will have when it acts towards the object in a certain way (Peirce, 1878).

Prior to 1870, Peirce conceives that meaning of a term is embodied in the abstraction that it
connotes. The meaning of an object is therefore the same abstraction that is the essence of the
object. As such once relations were admitted, and the propositional constituents coordinate with
the quality, it became possible to conceive the object not only in terms of the relation among its
states and with other objects, but also in terms of its behavior (Peirce, 1878). As a result, the
behavior of the thing itself may be seen as the essence rather than its qualitative essence. So, the
set of laws completely defining the behavior of the thing under all circumstances can provide the
meaning of the concept of an object. These rules govern the behavior of habits that link action to
experiencing outcomes. They are conditional statements pertaining to test conditions that
produce phenomenal results. As a result, the pragmatism principle holds that the collection of all
such conditionals is equivalent to the concept of the object. Given the claim of actual synonymy,
it follows that the idea of the real object can be expressed in phenomenal terms, namely
dispositionally phenomenal terms. This claim has caused Peirce a lot of difficulties. The first two
pieces of a series of six that were initially published in the Popular Science Monthly from
November 1877 to August 1878 under the aggregate title Illustrations of the Logic of Science
can serve as an example of Peirce's interpretation of pragmatism. The Fixation of Believing is the
first, and How to Make Our Thoughts Clear is the second. In the first essay, Peirce critiques the
idea of naive realism but concedes that the scientific method is superior for establishing belief
and dispelling doubt. In the second essay, Peirce argues for the practicality of unambiguous
conceptions. One crucial fact to keep in mind when attempting to comprehend Peirce's
philosophy is the fact that he spent a significant amount of his life engaging in physical science.
He considered logic and philosophy to be sciences, but not physical sciences (Oyenuga, 2014).
He therefore regarded logic as the logic of science and philosophy as the philosophy of science.
His descriptions of the nature of pragmatism can be interpreted in light of this context. Later, he
changed the name of his philosophy to "pragmatism" in order to distinguish it from other notions
and theories that were sold as pragmatism. We can define pragmatism as a way for identifying
broad notions in light of the aforementioned arguments and in light of Peirce's realism as a basis.
Peirce defines a generic term in the context of triangularity to clarify his practical perspective. If
we take the nominalistic stance that triangularity does not exist, then general notions cannot be

17
defined. As triangularity may be found in any triangle, according to a realist, our varied
experiences with triangles help us understand the significance of a general notion like
triangularity (Oyenuga, 2014). Unless and unless it is unclear for whose benefit the definition is
being constructed to gain those experiences, triangularity or triangle experiences are
meaningless. Hence, the optimal strategy is to prescribe a specific action, i.e., if one acts in a
given way, he will have a certain set of experiences, and the collection of ideas that come from
these experiences makes up the meaning of the concept. The evolution of this viewpoint aids in
our comprehension (Oyenuga, 2014).

2.3.2 Peirce’s Version of Pragmatism

The same analysis applies to generic notions if they have concrete concrete counterparts.
Undoubtedly, a realistic definition will provide us with helpful guidance for actions that affect
how the other person perceives us. Hence, if we accept pragmatism, we must also agree with
metaphysical realism in terms of concepts. It is clear from this examination that conceptions
relate to actual physical realities. How much value do mental conceptions have to begin with?
This is the crisis of meaning. What is the relationship between thought and deed, second? There
is a second problem with pragmaticism as a defining theory. In response to these questions,
Peirce argues that pragmatism "is a tool for identifying the genuine meaning of any thought,
doctrine, statement, phrase, or other sign." As a result, Peirce develops his pragmatic
methodology in a variety of unique ways. The ideal formulation is as follows: "To ascertain the
meaning of an abstract notion, one should examine what practical consequences might logically
flow from the actuality of that conception; the aggregate of these consequences will be the
complete meaning of the idea" (Peirce, 1878).

His pragmatic approach is based only on an analysis of an idea's epistemic underpinnings. The
first type of thought identified by Pierce is a percept or sensory datum, which is unrelated to any
other ideas. Consider the idea of redness as an example. Pierce is referring to the idea of
firstness. The second idea entails doing an action or being performed upon. We cannot confine
this way of thinking to conceptions of primacy. Take a look at the billiard ball concepts. Billiard
ball B being affected by A. This is an example of secondness. The idea of a sign, which is
described as "communication transmitted by one person to another in regard to a specific item
well known to both," makes up the third category of thoughts. Thirds are more than just a

18
combination of the first two groups. This is not the same as A plus B plus C, which is an
example of thirdness, even though A indicates that B and C are connected to one another. With
this dissection, Peirce creates his pragmatic method for determining the meaning of any given
complex idea. On the other hand, Peirce contends that pragmatism is motivated by the need to
clarify the importance of thirds. There are specific methods in which all third-type ideas, or
conceptual understandings, can be divided into first-type ideas (ideas of perception) and second-
type ideas (ideas of volition).

2.4 JOHN DEWEY PRAGMATISM

It is necessary to distinguish between Dewey's form of pragmatism, which he referred to as

"instrumentalism," and the pragmatism of Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, as well as the
instrumentalism of the Logical Positivists. Because he promoted the "operational criteria of
meaning," Peirce is typically regarded as the first pragmatist-instrumentalist. Operationalism,
also referred to as "verificationism," is the belief that "meaning" is not something that exists in
some sort of "Platonic heaven," waiting to be understood by knowledgeable subjects, but rather
that meaning is a component of the inquiry process itself: a concept or a sentence "means"
something only to the extent that it can be verified by the processes or operations of human
inquiry (Dewey, 1946). Insofar as meanings derive from human activity (praxis in Greek), Peirce
is a pragmatist, and Dewey liberally borrowed from Peirce in this aspect. Peirce was a
metaphysician and a self-described "scholastic realist," in contrast to Dewey. There is a reality-
in-itself that knowers perceive in the act of knowing and that has a distinct character independent
of what any individual thinks about it (though not independent of "thought-in-general"). As
human knowledge develops in tandem with reality, knowers' understanding of this reality-in-
itself becomes more and more adequate. Dewey would disapprove of Peirce's own style of
realistic metaphysics—indeed, of all metaphysics—as still being constrained by "the spectator
theory of knowledge" and hence being insufficiently pragmatic. James, unlike Peirce, was more
interested in questions like "Does my life have any meaning?," "Does God exist?," and similar
ones that ordinary people face in their daily lives. (Some scholars have suggested that in this
regard, James is almost a "existentialist" a la Sartre and Camus.) James was less interested in
metaphysical speculation about the ultimate nature of reality. In addition, he wrote philosophical
works for a general rather than "professional" readership, serving the same function as

19
illuminating pop psychologists nowadays (although, I might add, on an infinitely higher level of
discussion and with much more rigor and integrity). Dewey's goal was not exactly this. He
wanted to use James's pragmatic, thoughtful, and active reflection to advance democratic
participation and the resolution of social issues. James' philosophical interests were more
individualistic than Dewey's, which were more communal (Dewey, 1961).

2.5.1 Instrumentalism

Like Dewey, the logical positivists were ardent supporters of "the scientific method," as well as
"operationalism" and "verificationism." However, "verification" was a relatively straightforward
process for positivists: one simply made controlled observations of the world we experience (i.e.,
experimentation), evaluated the sense data provided by these observations, and then decided
whether or not these data supported the hypotheses being tested. The "verificationism" of Dewey
is totally different. He rejects all of this as yet another instance of the influence of "spectator
theories of knowledge," which conceive "verification" as more than simply passively "looking-
at" the sensibilia "given" in experience. Instead, verification is a crucial step in the interaction
between human agents and their environment as they attempt to solve practical issues as opposed
to theoretical ones.

John Dewey defined instrumentalism to set it apart from the schools of "pragmatism" and
"experimentalism" in his 1925 paper "The Evolution of American Pragmatism." In his paper
"Three Perspectives Concerning Human Knowing," written in 1956, Karl Popper defined
instrumentalism to set it apart from "essentialism" and a "third view" he later came to refer to as
"critical rationalism." The article by Dewey was reprinted in John Dewey: The Later Writings in
1984. In 1962, Conjectures and Refutations released a revised version of Popper's work. These
sources serve as the basis for the subsequent four propositions that define instrumentalism. Both
the general population and philosophers agreed with premises 1 and 2. Premises 3 and 4 are still
debatable (Dewey, 1946).

20
1) Theories are thinking tools that aim to map the links between means and ends discovered in
experience. Instrumentalism, in Dewey's opinion, is an endeavor to construct a precise logical
theory of concepts, judgments, and inferences in all of their forms by focusing largely on how
mind operates in the experimental determinations of future consequences.

2) Theories outline the effects of employing means to an objective. According to Dewey, "the
observation of specific events continues the verification of a theory."

3) The construction of theories calls for inductive reasoning, which bases generalizations on
scanty knowledge of the case's facts. According to Dewey, an empirical philosopher must "...
first identify specific situations from which he generalizes.

4) Nothing can be known beyond or behind what may be inferred from the use of instrumental
theories. According to Dewey, one can discover instances of what is referred to as truth by
"submitting concepts to the control of experience."

The schools of positivism, pragmatism, operationalism, behaviorism, anti-realism, empiricism,

and consequentialism are sometimes linked to instrumentalism since they hold some of the same
beliefs. In Instrumental and Value Rational Action, Instrumental and Value Rationality, and
Instrumental Value, its principles are further discussed. Popper's Logic of 1935 and Dewey's
Logic of 1938 were significantly unlike. Dewey recreated the traditional logical structures that
Popper had used to attack the contemporary method of induction. Whether scientific
investigation "may establish in its own ongoing course the logical standards and forms to which
later research shall adhere" was a subject he addressed. The substance of his affirmative response
is premise 4, which conventional logic led Popper to reject. Although Dewey's Logic did not
specifically mention instrumentalism or pragmatism, it did contend that both movements use
ideas as instruments for generating effects (premises 1 and 2). If the consequences are
implemented operationally and are designed to solve the particular issue that prompted the
operations, then they are essential tests of a proposition's validity.

Dewey accepted the usual definition of induction—which he used to evaluate it—as a method for
drawing general conclusions from specific examples. He clarified why it was no longer
permissible for Aristotle to apply this method to everlasting forms and sorts. Such tools were
made available by Dewey's instrumental analysis, which rebuilt both induction and deduction. A

21
single observation, such as "this swan is white," can be viewed as an unrelated fact without any
context. Dewey emphasized, however, that such an observation inevitably requires the definition
of "swan" as a specific category of "bird" in general. One could not call it a "bird" or a "swan" if
they were unfamiliar with an animal species that possessed multiple well-known traits. Kinds
and species do not exist independently of experience. According to Popper, they are produced by
investigations that use induction to separate stable characteristics of experience from incidental
or irrelevant characteristics. According to Dewey, contemporary science does not treat specific
findings as knowledge of what is real; for example, one does not automatically infer that swans'
whiteness is a defining property after a few sightings. To identify an issue whose nature indicates
potential solutions, some observations "are selectively discriminated." Only when observations
are causally connected to a problem do they become facts of the case.

The schools of positivism, pragmatism, operationalism, behaviorism, anti-realism, empiricism,

and consequentialism are sometimes linked to instrumentalism since they hold some of the same
beliefs. In Instrumental and Value Rational Action, Instrumental and Value Rationality, and
Instrumental Value, its principles are further discussed. Popper's Logic of 1935 and Dewey's
Logic of 1938 were significantly unlike. Dewey recreated the traditional logical structures that
Popper had used to attack the contemporary method of induction. Whether scientific
investigation "may establish in its own ongoing course the logical standards and forms to which
later research shall adhere" was a subject he addressed. The substance of his affirmative response
is premise 4, which conventional logic led Popper to reject. Although Dewey's Logic did not
specifically mention instrumentalism or pragmatism, it did contend that both movements use
ideas as instruments for generating effects (premises 1 and 2). If the consequences are
implemented operationally and are designed to solve the particular issue that prompted the
operations, then they are essential tests of a proposition's validity.

Dewey accepted the usual definition of induction—which he used to evaluate it—as a method for
drawing general conclusions from specific examples. He clarified why it was no longer
permissible for Aristotle to apply this method to everlasting forms and sorts. Such tools were
made available by Dewey's instrumental analysis, which rebuilt both induction and deduction. A
single observation, such as "this swan is white," can be viewed as an unrelated fact without any
context. Dewey emphasized, however, that such an observation inevitably requires the definition

22
of "swan" as a specific category of "bird" in general. One could not call it a "bird" or a "swan" if
they were unfamiliar with an animal species that possessed multiple well-known traits. Kinds
and species do not exist independently of experience. According to Popper, they are produced by
investigations that use induction to separate stable characteristics of experience from incidental
or irrelevant characteristics. According to Dewey, contemporary science does not treat specific
findings as knowledge of what is real; for example, one does not automatically infer that swans'
whiteness is a defining property after a few sightings. To identify an issue whose nature indicates
potential solutions, some observations "are selectively discriminated." Only when observations
are causally connected to a problem do they become facts of the case.

Instrumentalism, commonly referred to as experimentalism, is a philosophical theory that John

Dewey, a pragmatist, devised and thoroughly examined in order to set himself apart from other
pragmatists. Writes John Dewey:

The worth of an item or idea as a tool for action is what

matters most, and the usefulness of an idea is where its
truth rests. Dewey preferred using such terms to describe
the Philosophy underpinning his educational beliefs rather
than the term pragmatism. According to his school,
cognition has evolved for the sake of successful adjustment
rather than for theoretical or metaphysical reasons. Ideas
are intended to be tools for converting the discomfort of
addressing a problem into the fulfillment of fixing it
(Merrily, 1970).
From this, instrumentalism derives its use of concepts to address issues people face in daily life.
It helps turn a challenging scenario into one where the issue is resolved. This development on
established practices. Oyenuga quotes John Dewey as saying this:

The adage "a problem well stated is half solved" is well

known and true. to identify the problem(s) that a
troublesome circumstance presents, whether they are
pertinent or incorrect. What precise ideas are considered
and which are rejected depends on how the problem is
conceptualized. It is the standard for determining whether
an idea or set of conceptual structures is relevant or
irrelevant (Oyenuga, 2014).
2.5.2 Dewey on Morality

23
John Dewey's moral outlook is straightforward and liberal. The pragmatic theory of meaning
concurs with Dewey's understanding of ethical ideas. "It is not overstating things to say that the
key to a correct theory of morality is recognition of the essential unity of the self and its acts, if
those actions have any moral significance. Errors in theory arise as soon as the self and acts (and
their consequences) are separated from each other, and moral worth is given to one more than the
other (Dewye, 1906).

Ethics, in Dewey's view, is a science of behavior. Action takes the form of conduct. Yet, moral
behavior is not influenced by one's inner emotions. Thus, ethics should be researched and
understood publicly (Dewey, 1948).

The definition of words like habit, impulse, and intelligence is crucial in Dewey's ethics and
conduct. Human Nature and Behaviour contains the following: There has been extensive
discussion about Dewey's opinions on numerous moral topics. To start, Dewey asserts that
morals are concerned with the strength, effectiveness, and fulfillment of a development of human
nature. By using this definition, Dewey aims to bring morality and human nature together. Yet
there are some issues with this definition. On the one hand, morality can be attributed to human
nature. By asserting that we may alter the world by changing men's hearts, it can be claimed that
morality is distinct from the social environment. Another way to put it is that morality is
dependent on society; morality cannot occupy its proper place unless and until our social
structures change. Consequently, in Dewey's view, human behavior is the result of a relationship
between an individual and their environment – the environment influences their behavior, and
the individual's behavior influences the environment (Dewey, 1948).

Dewey examines the role of habit in behavior while elaborating on morality. He claims that
while discussing the influence habits can have on us, "when we are honest with ourselves we
admit that a habit has this power because it is so profoundly a part of ourselves. We are the habit,
thus it has a hold on us (Dewey, 1948).

Creating new habits is a difficult process. A child develops his uniqueness through the creation
of habits. Yet it's not advisable to have any habit at all. We should develop socially acceptable
habits. In other words, social environment has an impact on people throughout their lives and is
crucial for the development of habits. A man initiates some action, which subsequently causes

24
reactions in the immediate environment. Others agree, disagree, object, support, encourage,
spread, and resist. Simply allowing a man to be by himself is a clear response. Complicities
include envy, admiration, and imitation. There is no neutrality. Conduct is never private; this
distinguishes it from a physiological function. The ethical "ought" that behavior should be social
is not true. It is social, regardless of how it is.

We can conclude from the foregoing that human behavior is social by nature. He claims that, as a
result, "morals refer to established collective habits, folkways, and conventions for practical
purposes" (Dewey, 1948). Social conventions bind habits in human society. But as social
traditions evolve, our habits must also adapt in some ways. Hence, in light of shifting societal
trends, a social group's customs must be continually reexamined and critiqued.

Dewey contends that through developing our habits, we may successfully manage our behavior.
For instance, it is impossible to simply change a harmful habit by using willpower if one has
grown accustomed to it. He must alter the circumstances that produce undesirable results. As a
result, Dewey asserts that "poor results have been generated and will continue to occur as long as
those conditions remain. They cannot be eliminated by a direct act of will any more than the
drought-causing factors can be eliminated by whistling for wind (Dewey, 1948). That is, if
someone develops a harmful habit like drinking, they cannot will themselves out of that habit.
Instead, he can alter it by first attempting to understand why he has the habit he does. What are
the circumstances that lead to it? What objective is he trying to achieve by acting in this manner?

After he understands the purpose behind his habit, he can move on to try to create a new, more
acceptable habit. Dewey holds that morality is not static or unchanging. Depending on the
circumstance, it calls for action. Conflicting opinions lead to moral decisions in certain
circumstances. Humans are born with a set of values, in Dewey's view. But only those
circumstances in which a man must choose between his own desires and the best course of action
for him to take may effectively cultivate values. A man cannot rest in his immediate value at this
point; instead, he must use critical thinking to assess the circumstance and consider all of his
available options. Dewey refers to this process of consideration that ends with a choice to take
action as value in ethics. Dewey defines value as "whatever is regarded to have proper authority
in the direction of behaviour" as a result (Dewey, 1929).

25
Dewey is interested in researching the ethical dilemma of valuing. In this way, his theories of
morality and value provide a systematic explanation of his general theory of value. How to
participate in the appraisal process is currently a challenge. Dewey asserts that in order to make
the best decisions, we must thoroughly examine the outcomes of our actions after conducting a
thorough analysis of the circumstance. After careful consideration, the aims or products we
select in relation to a specific circumstance are those that are reasonable or desirable. To the
extent that they are consistent with our established intelligence habits, our decisions are logical.
Dewey is well aware of the restrictions imposed by our practical circumstances on our ability to
consider, but he also believes that someone who has been taught to reason wisely will be able to
act wisely even under those circumstances. Dewey asserts that there will always be
circumstances involving internal conflicts that call for judgment, choice, and action as long as
there is human life. In this sense, the moral life of man is never fully realized, and the goal that is
attained becomes a tool for achieving other goals (Dewey, 1948).

The ethical instinct also plays a part in Dewey's theory. He asserted that while impulse is a part
of our initial endowment from birth, habits are developed. Yet, in the beginning, impulse has no
purpose. The youngster, for instance, puts anything in his mouth. But as he matures, he discovers
that nothing—or nothing at all—should be consumed. Hence, an impulse only has meaning when
it becomes acquired through the formation of a habit. Dewey describes the purpose of ethics in
his work Reconstruction of Philosophy as the following:

The important thing changes from the static outcome and

result to the process of growth, improvement, and
progress; the end is no longer the destination or upper
bound. It is an active process of changing the current
circumstance. Growth itself is the only moral end, not
perfection as the ultimate goal, but rather the never-ending
process of perfecting, growing, and refining is the aim in
living (Dewey, 1948).
A moral naturalist, Dewey. He provides a natural explanation of the term "growth." He claimed
that value could be found in the natural world rather than the super natural. He refers to ethics as
having as its goal human happiness. "Moral good, like every good, consists in the satisfaction of
the forces of human nature, in welfare, happiness," he says in reference to this (Oyenuga, 2014).
The source of human happiness is life itself. The source of human happiness, however, is not life

26
in the static sense but rather life in the dynamic sense. Life, in Dewey's words, "means growth."
One who is growing is so experiencing life to the fullest. Yet, not all progress is worthwhile.
Dewey is referring to desirable growth that paves the way for additional expansion. He refers to
desirable growth as "reconstruction." Living has its own fundamental quality, in Dewey's
opinion. It is this standard of living that requires ongoing reconstruction. Hence, reconstruction
entails forming certain behaviors.

Finding ways to act or engage in activity, in Dewey's view, should be the aim of ethics. Yet
Dewey here means creative action by "activity." Dewey opined:

Activity is creative insofar as it progresses toward its own

enrichment as activity, that is, by releasing new activities
in the process. This characteristic is clearly present in
social interaction, creative creation, and scientific research;
some degree of it is a necessary corollary to all properly
coordinated effort. While it is a fulfillment from the
perspective of what comes before it, from the perspective
of what follows it, it is a liberating expansion (Dewey,
1961).
It seems that social philosophy and Dewey's ethics are intertwined. His ethics have a distinctly
humanistic bent, much like James'. Yet, Dewey differs from James in one crucial respect: James'
ethics place a strong emphasis on the individual's interpretation of morality. Dewey, however,
recognizes the significance of society in explaining morality rather than having a personal
agenda. Never does he put the individual before of society. Instead, society and the individual
should collaborate to advance morality.

We can see that while Dewey supports the scientific method, he opposes scientific ethics. He
opposes making moral issues into biological issues. He claimed that moral issues primarily affect
people as a whole. He contends that morality and general education are inextricably linked. So,
the only means by which moral development can take place is through education.

2.5.3 Dewey on Social Philosophy

Social philosophy is made possible by Dewey's ethical principles. His social philosophy
and ethics are intimately related. He states that his ethics have social significance at the
conclusion of his ethical discussion. Understanding the meaning of terms like right and

27
wrong, which result from social pressure, demonstrates this. Why, after all, do we
acknowledge the authority of right? The argument makes the assumption that most
people don't acknowledge it in reality or in practice, and that everyone occasionally
ignores it. What exactly is the significance of an allegedly acknowledged supremacy that
is actually persistently denied? How much would be lost if we were to withdraw, leaving
us to deal with the truth? The question "why be moral?" might make sense if a man lived
alone in the world. If one thing were different, this question would not be raised. We
currently live in a world where other people also exist. Our behavior affects them. They
are aware of these effects and respond to us as a result. They make demands of us
because they are living things and expect certain things from us. They do not do it in
terms of abstract theory, but rather in the way they treat us. Why not put your hand in the
fire? is a question that has a factual response. Your hand will get burned if you do. The
same sort of response applies to the question of why acknowledge the right. For right is
merely an abstract name for the vast array of specific demands in action that others make
of us and that we must consider if we are to survive. The rigor of their demands and the
effectiveness of their insistences are what give it authority. The argument that the concept
of right is, in theory, inferior to that of good may have some merit because it describes
the ideal path to pursue good. Nevertheless, in reality, it stands for all of the social forces
that are applied to us in order to get us to think and desire in specific ways. As a result,
the right can only actually lead to the good after the components of this constant pressure
are illuminated and social interactions start to make sense on their own (Oyenuga, 2014).
In addition to having a social significance, Dewey's social philosophy also has an ethical
significance. All social institutions—government, business, the arts, religion—have a
meaning and a purpose. Without regard to color, sex, class, or economic standing, that
goal is to liberate and develop human potential. Democracy has various definitions, but if
it has a moral connotation, it can be found in the decision that every political institution
and personal arrangement must pass the ultimate test of how much it contributes to the
overall development of every member of society.
The social meaning of Dewey's ethics and the ethical meaning of his social philosophy
provide us with the meaning of democracy, as we may infer from the aforementioned two
examples. Yet if democracy has a moral and ideal meaning, it is to demand a social return

28
from everyone and to provide everyone with the chance to develop their unique
capacities (Dewey, 1961).
Dewey believed that an individual's private life and the social society should be mutually
reinforcing. Only when a person interacts with the social community can his development
be considered relevant. An individual cannot survive by himself; in order to develop, he
needs society. He is also necessary to our social community. There ought to be a societal
benefit on both sides as a result.
There are both advantages and disadvantages to this point. It has a negative impact on
what is referred to as political democracy or a classless political system. Each person can
only develop to their full potential when they responsibly contribute in proportion to their
capacity to determining the goals and policies of the social groupings to which they
belong. With the exception of democratic political organizations, only specific individual
groups are allowed to participate in determining group decisions. We only discover a
classless political system in which everyone can participate in a democracy.
Dewey also suggests that social democracy is classless. There must not be a class barrier
that makes switching from one occupation to another impossible if a person is to be
allowed to develop in the ways that his or her natural skills can. Positive interpersonal
interaction is essential for continued personal development. There must therefore be no
restriction on the unrestricted spread of experience.

Democracy, from the perspective of the person, is a continuum that allows him to move
freely from one place on the social structure to another. Positively, the idea of the
possibility for the development of everyone's potential includes the idea of freedom. The
democratic concept of freedom does not grant each person the freedom to do as they
choose, even if such freedom is conditional on them not interfering with the rights of
others to the same freedom. The fundamental tenet of it is the freedom of the mind, as
well as whatever level of freedom of experience and action is required to develop
freedom of intelligence. These are all the types of freedom that are protected by the Bill
of Rights: freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of speech and expression,
freedom to assemble for meetings and conferences, and freedom to use the press as a

29
 means of communication. They are assured because without them people are restricted in
their ability to grow and society is robbed of any potential contributions they might make.
The central theme of democracy as a way of life can be summed up, in Dewey's opinion,
as the requirement that each and every mature human being participate in the formulation
of the principles that govern how men live together, which is essential from the
perspectives of both the general welfare of society and the full development of each
individual. Therefore, like his ethics, Dewey's social philosophy is naturalistic. His
fundamental philosophy is that when people collaborate, they can use their own
intelligence to solve issues. "Faith in the potential of human nature, faith in human
knowledge, and faith in the influence of polled and joint experience are the cornerstones
of democracy. The idea is that if given time and attention, these things will develop and
gradually produce the knowledge and wisdom required to direct collective action, not that
they are already perfect (Dewey, 1946).
All social institutions must engage in democratic thought and action, according to Dewey. For
Dewey, the secret to a happy life is personal intellect working in a social setting. Dewey spoke
extensively on education as a social activity in this sense. According to him, education's purpose
is to produce citizens who can advance the society's broader development, hence education must
focus on producing citizens with socially adept intelligence. In actuality, the spirit of a reformer
or reconstruction, not the revolutionary, permeates Dewey's entire thought and finds its perfect
embodiment in his social philosophy (particularly in the context of education). Dehumanization
of man is an inevitable result of allowing oneself to sway in the flow of events or failing to
accept responsibility for ongoing experience reconstruction. Let's go on to his thoughts on
education after this fundamental philosophical introduction. He actually laid the groundwork for
pragmatism to be recognized as a social philosophy through his ideas on education.
2.5.4 John Dewey On Democracy and Education:

A democratic notion of education can be used to describe the framework Dewey has in mind for
education. Dewey uses the term "democratic notion" to refer to education that allows students to
realize their own potential. And people can only achieve self-realization when they develop a
strategy for using their unique talents for the good of their community. Hence, in a democratic
society, it is our responsibility to aid youngsters in growing the traits, routines, and qualities that
will enable them to realize their own potential. Dewey observed that our sense of community

30
today is lacking. He therefore saw school as a vehicle for the socializing process. According to
Dewey, the school must transform into "an institution where the child is, for the moment, to live
— to be a member of a community life in which he believes that he participates and to which he
contributes" in order to educate for democracy (Aroroa, 2010). In other words, even while
schools are formal institutions for advancing learning activities, within this formal environment,
schools can maintain their informal nature and should remain connected to the society they serve
as a part of as it goes through a process of social regeneration.
Let's first consider some of Dewey's observations on the democratic view of education:
1. In Dewey's view, every child is special in that he or she has inherent value or dignity. If
democracy is our aim, then the school has a responsibility to treat each student as an individual.
The school must be able to identify the child's needs and interests and feed them appropriately.
2. In Reconstruction in Philosophy, Dewey uses the following quote to illustrate the notion of
democracy: "Democracy has many meanings; it is found in resolving that the supreme test of all
political institutions and industrial arrangements shall be the contribution they make to the
overall growth of every member of the society (Dewey, 1948). The societal implication of this
democratic ideal is that every member of society ought to have an equal opportunity to pursue
his or her own career. This also suggests that everyone will actually have access to schooling.
John Dewey became one of the ardent supporters of public education because of this democratic
principle. He wants every youngster to have the opportunity to maximize his potential, regardless
of ethnicity, religion, or career.
3. Each person should be sufficiently educated, in accordance with this democratic concept, to be
able to make intelligent judgments about values. In order to be intellectual, a youngster must be
familiar with a wide range of knowledge, including that of science, technology, economics,
politics, domestic life, and religion.
4. In accordance with Dewey, a democratic society that values the individual will likewise value
the distinctions and uniqueness of each individual. It will try to give as many people as possible
the chance to start voluntary interest groups and associations. A democratic society will try to
cultivate a healthy diversity, restraining it only where essential to ensure that coordination which
is required for the maintenance of everyone's welfare. Diversity of stimulation means novelty,
and novelty means challenge to mind.

31
5. According to Dewey, a democratic society shows a situation in which different abilities and
interests can coexist among multiple groupings. Conflicts do, however, frequently occur in
diverse environments.
Dewey therefore contends that an approach to conflict resolution is necessary in education.
Dewey advocates attempting to make the necessary improvements through research, dialogue,
conferences, etc. Even if Dewey has a thorough understanding of democratic education, it is
challenging to provide the right environment for kids to grow up with democratic values because
they cannot be forced upon them. Instead, a social context must be developed to enable kids to
take on the obligations of a democratic moral life. Nonetheless, we cannot overlook the fact that
Dewey held teachers in high regard for their contribution to the development of a democratic
idea of education. Dewey believed that the educational setting offered a somewhat regulated
atmosphere where the circumstances of one's own development might effectively determine its
trajectory. So, a democratic, cooperative, and common wealth could develop in the classroom if
teachers executed their jobs successfully. Dewey makes a strong point in his concluding remarks
that if schools were to become agents of social revolution, they would need to be completely
rebuilt. The most audacious goal Dewey had as a reformer of education was this.
But when we attempt to design education in accordance with the democratic values of the
society, significant issues come up. The idea that curriculum should be based on children's needs
and interests makes evident the aspects in it that have considerable psychological and moral
value. However there are some ambiguities in this idea. Does this idea, for instance, presuppose
that the educational requirements of the immature determine themselves? If the curriculum is
limited to the activities that can be directly generated from the current interests and felt needs of
the young, will all significant needs be met? Are kids able to identify their own patterns of
growth? If not, what exactly is the function of adult supervision in the design and
implementation of a learning program? According to Dewey, the school should respect each
student's individuality. Thus the development of every kid should be the primary educational
goal; yet, how should this development process be conceptualized? Does the idea that an
individual's development is its own aim mean that we do not need to consider the society in
which he will live and plan his career?

32
 REFERENCES
Adeleye J.O. (2017) "Pragmatism and Its Implications on Teaching and Learning in Nigerian
Schools." Research Highlights in Education and Science: P.2.

Akpan C.O. and Apologun S.S. (2015) "An Assessment of Nigerian Educational Problems in the
Light of Some Philosophical Orientations." Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational
Research and Policy Studies, 91.

Arora, Neeta (ed.) (2010). Educational Policy, Saurav Publishing House, Delhi, p.78
Dewey J. (1906), Ethics, H. Holt, Pennysylvania, pp.318-319.

Dewey J. (1929), The Quest for Certainity: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action,
Minton Balach and Co, New York, 1929, p.256.

Dewey J. (1946), Problems of Men, Cambridge University Press, New York, p.59.

Dewey J. (1948), Human Nature and Conduct, Henry holt & Compay, New York, p.3.

Dewey J. (1961), Democracy and Education, Macmillan Press, London, p.142.

Dewey, J (1948) Reconstruction in Philosophy, Beacon Press, Boston, p.211.

Gallie, W.B (ed) (1975) Peirce and Pragmatism, Greenwood Press, p.11

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Gallie, W.B. (1952) "Peirce's Pragmaticism." In Studies In The Philosophy Of Charles Sanders
Peirce, by P.W. Philip and H.Y Frederic, 61. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1952.

Merrily J. (1970), Pragmatism. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, P.84

Moore, E.C., (ed.) (1961), American Pragmatism (Peirce, James and Dewey), Columbia
University Press, New York, p.38

Oyenuga, O.F. (2014) Dewey's Pragmatism As A Foundation For Political Development In

Nigeria. Thesis, Ago Iwoye: Thesis Submitted to Olabisi Onabanjo University, 2014, P.33

Peirce, C.S. (1878), How to Make Our Ideas Clear. Popular Science Monthly, p.17

Rydenfelt, Henrik (2009) "The Meaning of Pragmatism:." In Cognito- Revista de Filosofia, by

Henrik Rydenfelt, . Helsinki: University of Helsinki, p.82

CHAPTER THREE

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION OF TEACHER'S DESPOTISM

3.1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION OF TEACHER'S DESPOTISM

Teacher despotism or despotic teacher is someone who lack the qualities of a teacher e.g A good
teacher must be prepared to respond constructively when behavior problems get in the way of
student learning and development.

To understand teacher’s despotism, I will like to explain what despotism means, since we have
see definition of who a teacher is and qualities of a teacher. So it is necessary to know what
despotism means so as to understand the concept we are discussing about.

Despot comes from the Greek work “despotes” meaning “Master or Lord”. It means someone
who rules in tyrant and an autocrat. It means someone who cannot be queried. Therefore, a
despotic teacher is someone who rules his or her students like tyrannical manner.

34
Balogun define teacher’s despotism as a teaching syndrome commonly found in the method and
mode of teaching adopted by teachers while discharging their professional duties. Such a
despotic syndrome translates into a characteristically narrative teacher-student’s relationship
(Balogun, 2008). He explains further that;

Teachers’ despotism as a teaching syndrome embraces

narrative education, which leads the students to memorize
mechanically the narrated content by the narrator (despotic
teacher). Despotism turns students into containers to be
filled by the teacher. The more completely a despotic
teacher fills the receptacles, the better he is. The more
meekly, the containers or receptacles permit themselves to
be filled, the better students are depositories and the teacher
is the depositor. Instead of communication, the teacher
issues communiqués and make decrees, which the students
patently receive, memorize and repeat. Despotic teachers
present themselves to their students as their necessary
opposite; by considering their ignorance as absolute, they
justify their existence and authoritativeness. The students
are alienated like the slave in Hegeliian dialectic, accept
their ignorance as justifying the teacher existence- but
unlike the slave, they never discover that they can educate
their teachers (Balogun, 2008).
From the aforementioned, it is clear that despotic teachers will have a significant negative impact
on the educational system and prevent the goal of education from being realized. Looking from
various schools of thought, idealism holds that the goal of education is to discover and develop
each student's unique abilities, which cannot be accomplished in the presence of despotic
teachers. The goal of education is to educate the practical man for the world, and from a realistic
standpoint, this cannot be accomplished through the dictatorship of teachers. The purpose of
education, according to the existentialism and pragmatic views, is to direct students' impulses,
abilities, and interests toward passing on the social background and dynamic outlook of society
to younger generations as well as cultivate a dynamic and adaptable mind for the purposes of
creating values to solve current problems, and it is all possible through teachers' despotism.

Teachers' despotism is a syndrome that frequently affects the approach and style of instruction
teachers use when doing their job obligations. Such a dictatorial syndrome results in a teacher-
student interaction that is distinctly narrative. A dictatorial instructor is the subject of this
relationship, and the object are the attentive students who patiently listen. The dread of the

35
teacher who speaks more to them than with them causes the students to learn more. The students
comply when the teacher makes and enforces a decision. The students are given the impression
that they are acting while the teacher is performing. The kids are only thought about by the
teacher. Students aren't allowed to understand that they can also develop information by
digesting their own experience and cognition; instead, they are encouraged to view knowledge as
the polished product of others' experiences. The pupils have no choice but to sit silently, listen
passively, and passively assimilate the information, just as a sponge does when it comes to
absorbing water since professors are so much superior to them and exercise such immense
authority. The presentation and authority of their subject matter is what matters most to the
teachers in such a system. The lecturers discuss reality as if it were immobile, unchanging,
divided into distinct areas, and predictable. Due to their tyranny, such lecturers lecture on
subjects that are wholly unrelated to the students' existential experiences. Their job is to "supply"
the students with the contexts for their narration-contents, which are disassociated from reality
and the larger contexts that could have influenced them. The psychological conditions of
learning, in terms of the pupils' aptitude and developmental stage, are also dismissed as trivial by
authoritarian teachers.

The tyranny of teachers as a teaching syndrome incorporates narrative instruction, which causes
students to mechanically remember the narrator's content (despotic teacher), Despotism
transforms pupils into empty vessels that the teacher must fill. A tyrannical teacher does better
the more completely he fills the receptacles. The better students are, the more gently the
containers or receptacles allow themselves to be filled. Education thus turns into an act of
depositing under the tyranny of instructors, with the teacher acting as the depositor and the
students serving as the depositories. It is obvious that the students understand, memorize, and
repeat the communiqués and decrees the teacher issues and makes in place of communication.
Despotic teachers pose as their required opposite in order to establish their authority over their
pupils by viewing their ignorance as absolute. Similar to the slave in Hegelian dialectic, the
students accept their ignorance as justification for the teacher's existence; however, unlike the
slave, they never learn that they can teach their professors.

Despotic professors set themselves up in opposition to the students' freedom by confusing the
authority of knowledge with their own professional authority (Freire, 1970:50). Some teachers

36
relish having the upper hand, abhor discussion, and prefer a calm classroom than one with lots of
activity. They reject student contributions and are resistant to criticism. They don't allow for
freedom in the classroom since they have a tendency to employ punishment more often than
praise and see pupils as disobedient people who need to be controlled. Also, all activities,
particularly the curriculum, are a result of the preferences of the teachers. They are resistant to
the changing nature of the curriculum and detest engaging in research that will broaden and
refresh their expertise. Despotic teachers frequently feed their students with outdated knowledge
that has no bearing on the experiences they are having at the time and find comfort in the
repeating of long-outdated curriculum. By defying the accepted norms, they decide what is right
and wrong. In actuality, the way that instructors teach and other classroom activities are
conducted under autocratic teachers lack democratic and practical safeguards.

A quick glance at the Nigerian educational system reveals that it is filled with vivid reflections
and examples of teacher dictatorship. Primary and secondary school levels are not the only ones
affected by the condition; the issue of despotism among instructors persists at all levels of
education. It is important to note the worrying prevalence of this issue at the tertiary level.
Particularly at this level of school, a detailed examination of the teaching methodology and the
interactions between teachers and students reveals that the despotism syndrome is fundamentally
in control. All class activities are ruled over by the tyrannical teachers under their strict authority.
They set the independence of the pupils in opposition to their own professional authority, which
they conflate with the authority of knowledge. The pupils are forced to listen silently while they
dominate the conversation. The phenomena of curriculum stagnantism, which is brought on by
oppressive teachers, is widespread in today's operations of our higher institutions. Many
educators are hesitant to deliver a diverse and engaging curriculum. They consistently use the
same course materials and lesson plans, and they feel at ease supplying the students with
outdated knowledge that has little bearing on their daily lives.

3.2 CAUSES OF TEACHER'S DESPOTISM

There are many variables that contribute to the despotism of teachers, but before we list them, we
should keep in mind that despotic teachers are not just born; they may also be created.

37
Economic frustration is one of the causes; some people don't want to be teachers but decide to do
so because there is no other option. As a result, they don't do it out of a sense of passion; instead,
they are more concerned with the money they will make than with the students or the transfer of
knowledge.

Another contributing aspect is the difficulty of some teachers to deal with kids; as a result, they
often respond angrily to everyone, which leads to their autocratic behavior.

Lack of confidence is another factor at play. Some teachers lack the confidence to interact with
students and to answer questions about the material they are teaching. As a result, they may
choose to forbid questions from students or suggestions that might provoke them, which results
in their despotic behavior.

Another issue is arrogance. Some professors just find themselves in positions of authority that
they did not anticipate, and as a result, it is uncomfortable for students to inquire about or add to
what they have said.

Lack of exposure is another factor that may have contributed to the factors I just mentioned.
Some of them are not exposed, and the environments they have lived in before have prevented
them from having the opportunity to teach. As a result, when they find themselves in charge of a
class or teaching it, they feel like they are in control of the world, which causes them to act in a
despotic manner.

The tyranny of Nigerian teachers is caused by a number of different underlying causes. It is

important to highlight that authoritarian teachers are not only created, but also born (Aguolu,
1975: 5). While it is true that education may exert some level of control over a teacher's
behavior, there is little doubt that the teacher's innately autocratic nature will affect his
performances. When those involved in the development of the curriculum reject updating it to fit
the demands of the society both now and in the future, despotic teachers are produced. Because
curricular materials are rarely changed in Nigeria, this serves as a convenient defense for the
oppressive teachers' lack of productivity. Additionally, considering that teachers are the driving
force behind the educational system, they may desire to exhibit dictatorial inclinations in
response to the unfair treatment that the government and relevant educational authorities may be
giving them in terms of their decent working conditions.

38
The economic distress of the nation has encouraged many job seekers (without prior training in
teaching pedagogy) to enter the teaching profession, which is another factor contributing to the
presence of dictatorial teachers in the Nigerian educational system. As these types of teachers
essentially lack the professional zeal and expertise of a good teacher, they are destined to be
tyrannical. Whatever the reason for teachers' authoritarianism, it is nevertheless true that its
impacts are severe.

3.3 A TEACHER'S DESPOTISM'S IMPACT

In Balogun's description of despotism, we can see some of the impacts of instructors acting like
despots, one of which is the transformation of pupils into empty vessels for the teacher to fill
(Balogun, 2008). A tyrannical teacher does better the more completely he fills the receptacles.
Students are better served as depositories and teachers are better served as depositors the more
gently the containers or receptacles allow themselves to be filled. The teacher makes decrees and
communiqués in place of communication, which the students openly accept, repeat, and
memorize.

Another consequence is that the child's mental and physical health may be impacted by the
autocratic teacher's unfair treatment of the children.

Another consequence is that students will contribute far less in class because they are aware that
their teacher does not value their opinions. This may be seen in students' lack of interest in
learning and participation in class.

Another effect is that a tyrannical teacher's harsh behavior toward the students disrespects their
freedom and rights as learners, which hinders self-learning and denigrates the intellectual
integrity of the students.

Despotism in the classroom syndrome is a disgrace to human decency. Students' rights are
disregarded, making them vulnerable to abuse. Despotism on the part of teachers undermines
students' intellectual integrity and hinders self-learning because it does not respect learners'
rights and independence. In addition to being ethically repugnant, teachers' authoritarianism can
kill students' creativity by preventing them from participating in the transformation and
development of knowledge. Only through creation, re-invention, and the restless, persistent, and

39
hopeful inquiry mankind pursue in the world, with the world, and with one another can
knowledge come into being (Freire: Op.cit: 139). This is fundamentally absent in an environment
where teachers have absolute power. Less students gain the critical consciousness that would
come from their engagement in the world as world-transformers, the more they are repressed and
controlled by authoritarian teachers. They tend to simply adjust to the world as it is and the
fragmented view of reality that has been deposited in them the more fully they accept the passive
role that has been imposed on them. In short, student research and intellectual independence are
stifled by teachers' authoritarianism. Any educational system where the phenomenon of teacher
despotism is prevalent would inevitably have negative effects. The educational system is also
blunt and possibly sterile for its anticipated duties and contributions to national development,
which severely impacts pupils in addition to the students themselves. In the hands of oppressive
teachers, Nigeria has long placed a great deal of hope in the values of education. The caliber of
the teaching staff and the enthusiastic and committed methods in which they carry out their
professional responsibilities play a significant role in how effective the educational system is.

3.4 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Education is derived from the Latin words educere and educare and simply means to lead forth,
elevate, bring up, or nourish (Tooley, 2000). People can live the most fulfilling lives imaginable
thanks to education. In terms of sociology, education is described as the act of imparting the
social behavior patterns that members of the society to which they belong learn. This includes
attitudes, values, and other things, with the main objective being adherence to the social order.

Education is the lifelong process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, and habits. It
is crucial for the development of the person as well as the community and is a fundamental
human right.

The importance of education in a variety of areas, such as social growth, economic advancement,
and personal well-being, has been highlighted in recent research. The 2018 study by Hanushek

40
and Woessmann found a correlation between higher educational levels and quicker economic
growth. According to a different Krueger study, having more education is linked to better health
outcomes, greater civic engagement, and more professional opportunities (2018).

Additionally, numerous studies have emphasized how important it is to provide underprivileged

and poor people with access to education. A 2007 study by Kremer and Miguel found that
educating women in developing countries can significantly improve their health, economic
growth, and social advancement.

As a result, the concept of education is broad and encompasses several concepts, including
equity, diversity, quality, and accessibility. It is critical to continuously evaluate and enhance the
educational system to ensure that it is meeting societal needs and equipping people with the
abilities they require to live happy, successful lives.

Since it fosters societal development, education is an important concept. Most, if not all,
countries in the world see education as a tool for development. There are definitions of
education, despite the fact that doing so can be difficult. Education is a controversial area of
study with no generally agreed-upon definition, similar to philosophy. Education "is not subject
to a single definition, as it varies with time and place," claims Obilom. 32 Nonetheless, across
time and in various domains of expertise, different scholars have provided varying definitions of
education. Despite the relevance of each of these definitions, none has been chosen as the official
one for education. Education is a difficult subject.

Education's main objective is to get people ready for their roles in society. It is a difficult process
with many facets. Educational objectives are the desired results or goals of the educational
system.

One of the fundamental objectives of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to students.
Getting knowledge and skills is necessary for people to be able to contribute to economic growth
and function successfully in society, according to a study by (Barker, 2018). The importance of
education in preparing people with the skills needed for the workforce, such as communication,
critical thinking, and problem solving, was emphasized in another study by (Carnoy, 2007).

41
The vital objective of education is to promote personal development and wellbeing. Henderson
and Mapp's study from 2002 found that education is crucial for assisting individuals in
developing their sense of identity, self-efficacy, and self-worth. According to Koszalka's 2015
study, education can aid in personal growth and contribute to improvements in mental health and
general wellbeing.

The important objective of education is to promote civic and social responsibility. A 2015 study
by Lefstein found that education can aid in the development of responsible citizens who can
participate in democratic processes, fulfill their civic obligations, and advance social justice.
Another study by Winch and Gingell found that education can promote civic literacy, which is
necessary for informed and active participation in society (2017).

The last goal of education is to encourage linguistic and cultural diversity. A study by Henderson
(2017) found that education can promote tolerance for diversity and cultural knowledge, two
qualities necessary for building inclusive societies. According to a different study, education can
promote multilingualism and multiliteracies, which are essential for social and economic
prosperity (Baker & Jones, 2018).

Adebayo defines education as "the entire process of human training by which knowledge is
conveyed, facilitated, trained, and skills produced" (Ushe, 2015). Hence, education is suspended
in order to promote a person's cognitive, emotional, and psychomotor development.

According to Adesemowo and Sotonade, education is "a vital process in human progress which
is different from schooling." A versatile weapon for change is education. It is expected that it
will affect or condition how persons getting education behave in social situations. According to
Bamisaiye, education is "a cumulative process of developing intellectual capacities, skills, and
attitudes, all of which create our varied outlooks and dispositions to action in life generally"
(Adesemowo and Olufunilayo, 1999).

According to Ross James S., the ultimate purpose of education—intellectual, moral, and physical
—is to bring out a child's innate intelligence, character, and abilities so they can reach their
maximum potential (1999; Adesemowo and Olufunilayo).

42
According to Farrant, there are three characteristics that set true education apart from methods
like role-playing, just mechanical instruction, indoctrination, and brainwashing. According to
him, genuine education produces an understanding that causes a learner to develop new mental
viewpoints. uses instructional strategies that motivate students to employ their critical thinking
and judgment. focuses on knowledge that is regarded as valuable and capable of eliciting a
willing and active response from the learner.

Education is a fundamental concept and characteristic in all human pursuits. Illo and Bolaji
contend that every person of the nation participates in the educational process, along with
teachers, students, parents, and the government (Ismaila, 2008).

Since folklore and storytelling are frequently seen as means of transmitting knowledge from one
generation to the next, they are frequently presented as instances of education. Education is
similarly described by Akinkuotu as "the transmission of past knowledge, skills, and values of
the entire human society from generations to generations in order to prepare the individual for
their positive contributions to themselves and their society and to help the individual to attain the
development of his potentialities and to also achieve his ideal self-fulfillment in the society of
which he is a part" (Ismaila, 2008).

3.4.1 The Conceptions of Education

By departing from the idea of education as schooling, James Tooley split ideas of education into
two categories (Tooley, 2000). He asserts that there are often two schools of thought when it
comes to schooling. He offers the two concepts that are as follows:

1. Education as a tool for (a) advancing specific social causes and (b) preparing students for
adulthood.

2. The fundamental value of education.

1. Using education as a tool to further specific socially desirable goals

43
James Tooley places Professor John White, Dearden, Barrow, Clark, and Coulson among the
philosophers who fall within this category. White and Dearden fall within the first type, which
includes people who view education as a means of fostering autonomy. Those who view
education as a means of pursuing joy or happiness fall into a different category. People who see
it as the pursuit of God's will for our lives or as a life of service to others fall into a different
category. James identifies surveys of parents who see education in terms of enabling people to
pursue a life that may result in health and enough income to ensure stability for themselves and
their families. He also identifies certain groups that are not philosophers but share this
conception of education.

Under this idea, it is stressed that education can be for both an individual's and society's benefit
rather than being an end in and of itself. According to this theory, economists refer to what they
call externalities. Externalities are advantages that arise for the entire society when people work
toward their personal goals. Externalities in the context of education are typically advantages that
the community as a whole experiences when all citizens are educated; conversely, failing to
educate all citizens is harmful to society as a whole. According to economists, an educated
population can provide the following social benefits: promotion of democracy, promotion of
social cohesion, promotion of equality of opportunity, reduction of crime, and economic growth.

And not only economics consider these items for society. The benefits that society expects from
its educational initiatives have also been listed by philosophy of education Professor Ruth
Jonathan, including: • Education for economic progress.

• Promoting principles that are appropriate for society.

• Preserving a cultural heritage.

• Preservation of the polity's overall culture and decorum.

• A society that is more egalitarian.

As a means of preparing for adulthood

• Education as adult life preparation can be further broken down into the following sub-
components:

44
• An introduction to and development of the information and abilities necessary for success in
adulthood.

• An introduction to and development of the skills and morals necessary for success in
adulthood.

• The development of information, abilities, aptitudes, and values that will enable children to live
fulfilling lives, either on their own terms or in accordance with societal norms.

According to James Tooley, "adult life preparation can be in terms of preparation for working
life, but it can also be in terms of preparation for becoming decent citizens, preparation for
motherhood, and so forth." In this sense, education serves as a tool for life preparation and
personal growth.

2. The intrinsic value of education:

This idea is said to have lost some of its appeal in recent years. When its main proponent in the
UK, Professor Richard Peters, at the University of London Institute of Education, was spewing
forth his development of thoughts on the subject, it was enormously popular in the 1960s, 1970s,
and even a little in the 1980s. Researchers who subscribe to this idea include Anthony O'Hear
and Professor Michael Oakeshott.

In this idea, education entails being inducted into intellectual traditions. This idea holds that
education has intrinsic worth on its own. Education is the dissemination of value to those who
are devoted to it. There is no purpose outside of education itself. There is no more explanation
needed for this strategy in terms of improving human pleasure, economic utility, or social
benefit. The justification for education is itself.

3.4.2 Aims of Education

Illo & Bolaji (2007) state that the purpose of studying the history of education is to:

1. Assist educators in understanding historical educational concepts and practices so they

may predict how education will grow in the future.

45
 2. Meeting educational objectives within the framework of the various societies it serves.
Philosophy, sociology, psychology, and methodology are all rigorously studied and lessons
are thus derived from them in areas like school administration and organization.

3. Outlining historical occurrences, their historical context, and the evolution of Nigeria's
educational system. The traditional, Islamic, or western systems of education all have a
strong influence on Nigeria's modern educational practices.

4. Enabling us to compare our educational methods with those of other nations on a regional
or continental scale by educating us about both our historical and contemporary educational
practices.

5. Acting as a precedent-setting compass to direct national educational policy.

6. To plan for potential educational reform; analyze past actions and decisions that may be
very helpful in forming the country's future educational strategy.

7. To give sufficient information on the traditional or native educational system that existed
before the spread of Islam and Christianity or Western education.

General Purpose of Education

The general purpose of education according to Ismaila (2008)are;

The goal of researching education history, according to Illo & Bolaji (2007), is to:

1. Aid educators in comprehending historical educational concepts and practices so they can
forecast how education will develop in the future.

2. Achieving educational goals in accordance with the diverse social structures it supports. It
is carefully researched philosophy, sociology, psychology, and methodology, and as a result,
lessons are drawn from these disciplines in areas like school administration and organization.

3. Tracing the development of Nigeria's educational system and outlining historical events
and their historical context. Nigeria's contemporary educational methods are strongly
influenced by traditional, Islamic, and western educational systems.

46
 4. Giving us knowledge of both our history and current educational practices, allowing us to
compare them with those of other countries on a regional or continental scale.

5. Serving as a compass to guide national educational policy and setting precedents.

6. To develop a possible plan for educational reform; examine previous actions and choices
that may have a major impact on the development of the nation's future educational policy.

7. Should provide enough details about the conventional, indigenous educational system that
prevailed before the spread of Islam, Christianity, or Western education.

Aims of Education In Nigeria

When the National Policy on Education was published in 1976, the Federal Military Government
replaced the 6-5-2-3 educational system with the 6-3-3-4 system, which Oyeyemi describes in
order to illustrate the objectives of education in Nigeria. Six years of elementary school, three
years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of
university education are represented by the symbols 6-3-3-4. (Oyeyemi, 2008).

Primary Education

Children in the primary grades range in age from 6 to 11 plus. It is considered to hold the key to
the overall system's success or failure. It lasts for six years. Effective communication is a goal of
primary education. Activities in science, the arts, and creativity are all part of the curriculum.
Languages, social studies, home science, physical education, and citizenship education. Instead
of the rote learning of the past, teaching in primary schools would use explanatory approaches
with an emphasis on manual skills.

Objectives of Primary Education

Among the goals of primary education are:

1. To achieve permanent literacy by mastering the three R's: reading, writing, and arithmetic.

2. Creation of moral norms for personal conduct and behavior.

3. To gain knowledge and understand the significance of manual labor.

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Secondary Education

Secondary education attempts to prepare students for higher education as well as practical living
in society. There are junior and senior stages in it. The pre-vocational and academic disciplines
are included in the Junior Secondary curriculum to help students improve their abilities and
independence.
Agriculture, business, metals, home economics, regional crafts, and computer education are
among the pre-vocational disciplines. Languages, mathematics, integrated science, social studies
and citizenship instruction, introductory technology, religious knowledge, physical education and
health education, and fine arts are some of the other disciplines.
Aims of Secondary Education
According to the National Policy on Education, the two main goals of secondary education are:

1. preparing students for productive living in society; and

2. preparing students for higher education.

According to the document, secondary education's specific goals are to:

a. gives more primary school students the chance to receive a higher-quality education,
regardless of their sex, social, religious, or ethnic background;

b. diversifies its curriculum to account for the variety of skills, roles, and opportunities that
students may have after completing their secondary education; and c. prepare students to live
successfully in our society.

g. To instill in its students a drive for success and self-improvement, both in the classroom and
outside of it.

The document lists the steps listed below, among others, to accomplish the objectives:

1. A two-tier structure with a three-year duration for each level will replace the current five-year
high school curriculum.

2. As soon as feasible, the junior secondary will be pre-vocational, academic, and free.

3. The senior secondary curriculum will be thorough enough to allow students' knowledge and
perspectives to expand.

4. Similar to the primary sector, the evaluation of student performance and the awarding of
certificates would consider continuous assessment to some extent, particularly at the junior
secondary school level.

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5. The West African Examination Council will use the results of a nationwide exam to determine
the final secondary school diploma.

6. Secondary education can now be run by nonprofit organizations and private citizens, but
government organizations retain jurisdiction and oversight.

7. Students from all secondary schools are admitted, regardless of their racial or cultural heritage.

8. The government would provide dropouts with training on radio and television as well as
through correspondence courses.

9. Inspection services for all educational levels will be properly maintained, and introduction
programs for newly recruited secondary school inspectors will still be organized.

REFERENCES

Adesemowo P.O., and Olufunmilayo S.A. (1999) "The Meaning and Scope of Education." In
Basics of Education, by P.O. Adesemowo, (Lagos: Truimph Books Publishers)P.1
Baker, C., & Jones, S. P. (2018). Multilingualism, multiliteracies and social inclusion in
education. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(2), 107–121.

Barker, J. R. (2018). The importance of knowledge and skills for economic growth. Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 32(3), 71–92.

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Carnoy, M. (2007). The role of education in economic growth. Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 21(3), 3–24.

Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2018). The economics of international differences in

educational achievement. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 32(3), 367–392.

Henderson, A. T. (2017). Cultural diversity in schools: From rhetoric to practice. New York:
Teachers College Press.

Henderson, A. T., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school,
family, and community connections on student achievement. Austin, TX: Southwest
Educational Development Laboratory.

Illo C.O, and Bolaji S.D. (2007), Historical Perspectives on Nigeria Education. Lagos: Living
Publishing House, P.4
Ismaila M.A. (2008), "Concept of History of Education." In A Handbook On History of
Education in Nigeria, by M.B Lawal, Ado-Ekiti: Joytal Printing Press, Pp.3-4.
Koszalka, T. A. (2015). The role of education in promoting well-being. Journal of Happiness
Studies, 16(1), 1–26.

Kremer, M., & Miguel, E. (2007). The promise of education: Evidence from a randomized
evaluation in Kenya. Journal of Public Economics, 91(11-12), 1867–1895.

Krueger, A. B. (2018). The importance of education for economic and social development.
Journal of Economic Perspectives, 32(3), 3–30.

Lefstein, A. (2015). The role of education in promoting social and civic responsibility. Journal
of Social Issues, 71(2), 221–237.

Obilom J.E.C. (1989), Issues and trends on 6:3:3:4 Religion Education in Nigeria. Jos:
Government press, P.38
Oyeyemi S.O., (2008) "Educational Policy And Development In Nigeria." In A Handbook On
History of Education in Nigeria, by M.B Lawal, Ado-Ekiti: Joytal Printing Press, Pp.3-4.
Tooley, James (2000). "Education" In Reclaiming Education, by James Tooley, (British: British
Library,) P.27
Ushe M.U. (2015) "Religious Conflicts and Education in Nigeria: Implications for National
Security." Journal of Education and Practice, 2015: 117.

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Winch, C., & Gingell, J. (2017). The role of education in promoting civic literacy. Journal of
Educational Research, 110(4), 348–357.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRAGMATISM AS A PANACEA TO THE PROBLEM OF TEACHER'S DESPOSTIM

IN NIGERIA EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The Nigerian school system has several serious flaws, that is beyond dispute. When you take a
philosophical look at how the system works, you'll see that issues like teacher strikes, hidden cult
activities, exam malpractices, inadequate funding and infrastructure, educational opportunity

51
inequity, stigmatized curricula, and many more crop up repeatedly. Common to all these
difficulties is the fact that, despite the best efforts of experts from many disciplines, very few
have ever been solved. Yet much more pervasive than these problems is teacher
authoritarianism, which has ballooned to epic proportions in the United States' classrooms but
has been mostly ignored by academics. As well as reaching frightening proportions, teacher
authoritarianism in the Nigerian educational system has had serious negative effects on the
system. The quality and effectiveness of a school's teaching staff is ultimately responsible for the
success of that institution's overall educational system. In a system where professors are
autocratic, not only will students suffer, but the institution as a whole may be too brutal and
sterile to contribute as much as was hoped to national growth.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a philosophical analysis of the problem of teacher
despotism in Nigerian schools and suggest strategies for its amelioration. Additionally, this study
will attempt to show how pragmatism might be utilized to address the issue of teacher despotism
in Nigeria's school system. In the third section, we examine the phenomena of teacher despotism
and the Nigerian experience from a theoretical perspective. Next, we'll take a philosophical look
at pragmatism's foundations and principles in the classroom. In the concluding half of the paper,
the pragmatists' solution to the problem of teacher despotism in the Nigerian educational system
is constructively proposed.

4.2 PRAGMATISM AS A PANACEA TO THE PROBLEM OF TEACHER'S

DESPOSTIM IN NIGERIA EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Teacher despotism is a problem in the Nigerian educational system because it stifles creativity
and independent thinking among students. Students are often afraid to express their opinions or
challenge the views of their teachers for fear of reprisals. This results in a lack of intellectual
curiosity and critical thinking skills among students. Pragmatism can be used to solve this
problem by emphasizing the importance of experimentation, observation, and experience in
learning.

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According to Dewey (1938), education should be "a process of living and not a preparation for
future living." This means that education should be focused on the practical aspects of life, rather
than on theoretical knowledge that may not be useful in real life. In a pragmatic educational
system, students would be encouraged to experiment and observe the world around them in order
to develop practical skills and knowledge.

Pragmatism also emphasizes the importance of individual experience in learning. According to

James (1898), "the whole function of thinking is but one step in the production of habits of
action." This means that learning is not just about acquiring knowledge, but also about
developing habits of action that lead to practical results. In a pragmatic educational system,
students would be encouraged to apply their knowledge in practical situations in order to develop
these habits of action.

Pragmatism emphasizes the importance of open-mindedness and flexibility in learning.

According to Dewey (1910), "the only way to prepare for the future is to live well in the
present." This means that learning should be focused on the present, rather than on the past or the
future. In a pragmatic educational system, students would be encouraged to be open-minded and
flexible in their thinking, and to adapt to new situations and challenges as

After outlining the problem of teacher tyranny, its impact on the Nigerian educational system,
and a philosophical analysis of the core concepts of pragmatism, the question now becomes:
How can pragmatism assist in addressing teacher tyranny in Nigeria's schools? Our position is
that the problem of teacher tyranny in Nigeria's educational system is not insurmountable, and
that an immediate pragmatic approach to pedagogy is required. Teaching, according to
pragmatists, should not be imposed on students, but rather should be a two-way street of
dialogue and mutual exploration between the instructor and the students. This means that the
pragmatic approach to teaching is the polar opposite of despotism. That is to say, a pragmatic
educator must always be prepared to defend his words and actions, whether by explaining his
actions or justifying comments he has made. He must demonstrate exemplary performance in
front of his students by, among other things, having a firm grasp on the material he is teaching,
delivering engaging and informative lectures, being well-versed in the most effective teaching
methods, and comprehending his students' varying levels of intelligence and learning styles.
Pragmatism strongly encourages teachers to respect their students' right to challenge, question,

53
and seek clarification of any and all of their statements. A teaching scenario necessitates rational
conversation, which ostensibly eliminates any possibility of authoritarianism. The pragmatic
educators deliver their lessons in a morally acceptable manner. In this scenario, the instructor is
both the one who teaches and the one who learns from the students as they teach and are taught
by him. This means they share responsibility for a positive development that benefits everyone.
The pragmatic approach to education ensures that arguments based on authority and despotism
are kept out of the classroom by emphasizing that any power must be on the side of freedom
rather than against it. Change is inherent in existence, according to pragmatism, so we must be
flexible in our approach to problems (Fasanmi, 1997:157). The ideal of conservatism and
rigidity, including curriculum stigmatism, is something that pragmatists despise. It is defined by
authoritarian teachers who are stubbornly unwilling to change the content of their curriculum. A
teacher in Nigeria might justify his autocratic methods by claiming that educators there aren't
responsible for shaping the curriculum and can simply implement what has already been decided.
This argument no longer holds any water. Teachers are expected to effect change by consistently
emphasizing the importance of reviewing the school's curriculum to educational policymakers.
Furthermore, pragmatists believe that science classes should be required in all high schools and
middle schools. Instead of the notion of information conservatism promoted by autocratic
educators, they foster a scientific mindset that prepares students to make better decisions in
general. The scientific method leaves plenty of room for investigation and the ongoing revelation
of reality. Given the current state of affairs in Nigeria, it could be argued that what the country
really needs is a surge of scientifically curious minds to spark the technological revolution
required for the country's progress. To effect this change, great visionaries, devotees, artists, and
realists are required in the classroom. Despotic teachers have been impeding the realization of
these revolutionary initiatives, whereas pragmatically induced teachers can bring about change
that will better prepare pupils for the task at hand. Pragmatism favors cooperative learning over
competitive learning, which is promoted by authoritarian educators who encourage anti-social
behavior. Individualistic tendencies, rather than social tendencies, are reinforced when a student
is forced to learn alone and to succeed solely through his own efforts under the dictatorship of
the professors, rather than through group learning. In other words, the most effective way to
foster and create a learning environment for students is to use the pragmatists' group learning
style, in which problems are assigned to groups. This approach, in addition to eradicating

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autocracy, provides a platform for children to demonstrate their own initiative and innate
intelligence as they work to solve problems. Not to mention, it's where structured social
intelligence and harmonious social life first take root and grow. As previously stated, teacher
despotism is a major impediment to the educational sector making the significant contribution to
national development that is expected of it. This is possible because of the oppressive educators
who raise these children. If pragmatism is used as the philosophical foundation from which
teachers get inspiration for their teaching techniques and duties, students with high intelligence
and integrity who can face and overcome any difficulty will be produced. In this regard, Julius
Nyerere's adage that "no educational system can rise above the quality and performance of its
teacher" holds true. This demonstrates once more that no positive outcomes can be expected
from a school system staffed by autocratic educators. If schools are staffed with practical
educators who are also well-equipped, the system as a whole will thrive, and the country as a
whole will benefit. On this note, the report suggests that universities and colleges devote more
resources to providing practical, hands-on instruction to teachers. Teachers who adhere to the
pragmatist philosophy will write their own notes rather than having them dictated to them and
then passing them out to their students. Pragmatists encourage educators to stay up to date on
developments and trends in their fields of expertise. To advance and deepen academic research,
pragmatically inspired teachers frequently seek out opportunities for idea cross-fertilization by
reading journals, attending conferences, seminars, and workshops, and searching the Internet for
relevant information. The tools they learn from these mental explorations are used to hone the
students' intellectual prowess and ability to solve problems. The pragmatist ethos also fosters a
friendly environment between instructors and students. For example, rather than being mandated
from on high, the method of long-essay monitoring will be determined by the students
themselves. Pragmatism advocates for student choice of research projects and advisors. The
report acknowledges that today's pragmatic educators face greater challenges than their
forefathers. Professionals are responsible for a variety of administrative tasks in addition to
teaching. The pragmatic approach to education is regarded as a noble goal that must be upheld in
order for the educational system to live up to its name. We believe that for this method of
instruction to be successful, the government and other concerned parties will need to be aware of
their responsibilities. Given the nature of the pragmatic teaching mode, students should make
every effort to adopt the learning attitudes and behaviors that will maximize the efficacy of the

55
mode. Remember that pragmatism does not lower academic standards; rather, it demonstrates to
educators how to conduct lessons for the best learning outcomes. Regarding the relationship
between educators and their students, followers of this school of thought believe that classroom
practices should evolve over time to reflect societal needs and interests. It is opposed to anything
that does not work or advance things. Despite pragmatism's belief that schools cannot transform
society as a whole, they can reform it by instilling in students the values and social skills
required to thrive in the communities in which they grow up. As a result, because the instructor
is neither a spectator nor a dictator, pragmatism advocates for the use of group learning, which
promotes learners' independence. This school of thought contains several key takeaways that can
be used to combat authoritarianism in teachers' interactions with students.

a. Teaching is a mutually beneficial exchange of knowledge and experience between instructor

and student, rather than imposing one's will on them. A pragmatic educator is expected to do
more than just explain and justify his actions and statements; he must also demonstrate
competence in the classroom through effective student management.

b. Pragmatism can be an antidote to despotism because it discourages complacency, encourages

instructors to improve their instructional techniques, and encourages students to offer and
consider alternative viewpoints rather than being imposed upon.

c. The pragmatic system ensures that authority-based arguments must be on the side of freedom,
not against it, and it allows the teacher to teach morally and engage in dialogue with the students,
allowing the students to teach others.

d. Pragmatism is based on the idea that scientific inquiry and constant exposure of the truth can
only be achieved by incorporating scientific inquiry and the disclosure of the truth as it is
discovered. It will also encourage students to think creatively about how to advance technology,
because everything they learn will have a direct application in the real world, rather than being
based on the naive assumptions of a tyrant who failed to conduct their own research before
passing on her lessons.

e. Pragmatism prefers collective study to dictatorial reliance on one's own intellect. When
compared to learning independently, which can leave children feeling isolated, group learning is

56
clearly superior. Students who read aloud to one another benefit not only from their peers'
expertise and insight, but also from the reduced workload that results for the teacher.

f. As a result, we can conclude that pragmatism encourages educators to intellectually grow and
revise the lesson notes they use with their students, while discouraging dictation and the
presentation of out-of-date notes to their students. It seems reasonable to assume that if teachers
are made more effective and do not stay in the same position for long periods of time, student
achievement will improve. In conclusion, a dictatorial attitude on the part of teachers has been
identified as a contributing factor in the perpetuation of educational issues from generation to
generation. It is undeniable that it has had a negative impact on the students' political, economic,
social, and moral well-being. Schools are under pressure to produce high-quality work from their
students because some teachers are autocratic. The Nigerian government, in particular, must play
a number of roles in order to act as a check on these educators. Nonetheless, pragmatic theory
can be a useful tool in combating authoritarian educators and their negative effects on students'
education. Nigeria's 1999 constitution guarantees freedom of expression and the press. Section
39, paragraph 1 of the Constitution guarantees all citizens the right to freely express their
opinions and beliefs, as well as the freedom to absorb and adopt new ideas and information
(Constitution 1999:22). This emphasizes the significance of communication in the spread of
knowledge. If this logic holds, both students and teachers have legitimate claims to a free and
open learning environment. Problems with student-teacher communication reveal that while
some students have unrestricted access to their teachers, the vast majority face barriers whenever
they need to approach a teacher due to a natural fear of retaliation. As a result, this has an impact
on students' ability to learn.

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Aguolu, Q.C. (1975). John Dewey's Democratic Conception of Education and its Implication for
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Akinpelu, J.A. (1985). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. London: Macmillan Press.

Avoseh, M.B.M. (2000). Philosophy of Education. Issues and Problems in Philosophy. Kolawole
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Balogun, O.A. (1998). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. Philosophy: An Anthology,

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Balogun, O.A. (2002). A Pragmatic Approach to the Management of Public Enterprise in

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Enoh, A.O. (1996). Main Current in Nigeria Educational Thought. Jos: Midland Press.

Fasanmi, O.T. (1997). Teaching Philosophy of Education in Tertiary Institutions: Problems and
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Neil, M.C.; John, and Pophanum, (1973). The Assessment of Teacher Competence. Second
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