A Report on

INDUSTRIAL TOUR TO PACIFIC JEANS AND FIELD VISIT TO

SE BANGLADESH

Bachelor of Science (Honors) in Environmental Science and Disaster Management

Course Title: Industrial Tour/Field Trip
Course Code: ESD423

Submitted to:
Md. Rajib Hossain
Assistant Professor,
Md. Muhyminul Islam
Assistant Professor,
Dr. Md. Rasheduzzaman
Assistant Professor,
Department of Environmental Science and Disaster Management

Submitted by:
Abir Hasan Shovon
Student Id: 16ESD025
4th Year, 1st Semester
Department of Environmental Science and Disaster Management

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University

Gopalganj-8100

Date of Submission: September 19, 2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Aims and objectives of the Industrial Trip………………………...
……….......1
1.2 Summary of the Tour plan and Locations………………………...................1-3
1.3 Relevance of the visited places and Industry Visited during the Tour to Our
Current Program……………………………………………………..…..…..3-4

CHAPTER TWO: INDUSTRIAL VISIT

2.1 Overview of Pacific
Jeans……………………………………………………….5
2.2 Vision or Goal of Pacific
Jeans…………………………………..........................6
2.3 Type of the Industry………………………………………………………...
…....6
2.4 Buyers of Their
Products………………………………………………...............6
2.5 Role of Pacific Jeans in Maintaining Environmental
Sustainability……………..7
2.6 Measures Taken for Maintaining Environmental Sustainability……………...7-8
2.7 Washing Department………………………………………………………...8-11
2.8 Operation of Effluent Treatment Plant………………………..…………….11-
13
2.9 Drawbacks and Suggestions to Improve Environmental Sustainability….
…......14
2.10 Relevant Photos…………………………………………………..……….14-15

CHAPTER THREE: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE

SOUTH-EASTERN REGION OF BANGLADESH
3.1 Physiography of South-eastern Bangladesh…………………………….......16-
17
3.2 Physiography of Saint Martin’s Island……………………………………...17-
18
3.3 Observed Rock/Depositional Features……………………………………...18-
21
3.3.1 Observed Rock in Rangamati…………………………………………18-
19
3.3.2 Observed Rock in St. Martin’s Island………………………………....19-
21

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CHAPTER FOUR: BIODIVERSITY OF SE BANGLADESH
4.1 Floral and Faunal diversity of Visited Places……………………………….22-
32
4.1.1 Biodiversity of Rangamati and Bandarban……………………………22-
24
4.1.2 Biodiversity of Cox’s Bazar…………………………………………..24-
28
4.1.3 Biodiversity of St. Martin’s Island…………………………………....28-
32
4.2 Threats to the Biodiversity of the Visited Area……………………………..33-
35
4.3 Impact of the Tourism on Regional Biodiversity…………………….
………....35
4.4 Recommendations to Improve the Conditions/Problems……………….…..36-
37

CHAPTER FIVE: COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF BANGLADESH

5.1 Coastal Environmental Features of Cox’s Bazar…………………………....38-
41
5.2 Livelihood of the Coastal People of Cox’s Bazar and Saint Martin’s
Island……………………………………………………….…………………..41-42
5.3 Peninsula and Teknaf Peninsula…………………………………………….42-
44
5.3.1 Peninsula……………………………………………………..…………..42
5.3.2 Teknaf Peninsula…………………………………………………..….42-
44
5.4 Definition of Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA), List of the ECAs of
Bangladesh, Number of ECAs in Our Visited Places and Their Present
Conditions……...…44-48
5.4.1 Ecologically Critical Areas……………………………………………....44
5.4.2 List of Ecologically Critical Areas of Bangladesh………………..…..44-
46
5.4.3 Number of ECAs in Our Visited Places and Their Present
Condition…………………………………………………………………….....46-48
5.5 Formation of Saint Martin’s Island and its Major Environmental
Features...............................................................................................................48-50
5.1 Formation of St. Martin’s Island………………………………………..48-
49
5.2 Major Environmental Features of St. Martin’s Island…………………..49-
50
5.6 Implementation of the Coastal Zone Policy 2005, Bangladesh in Visited Coastal
Places…………………………………………………………………………...50-52

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 5.7 Hazards and Disasters of Coastal Bangladesh………………………………52-
57
5.8 Sufferings of Local People from Environmental Hazards and Disasters in
Visited Coastal
Places…………………………………………………………………..57-59
5.9 Observed Disaster Resilient Features in Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s
Island……………………………………………………………………….…..59-60
5.10 Effects of the Tourism in Coastal Bangladesh……………………..….…..60-
62
5.10.1 Positive Effects of Tourism in Coastal Bangladesh……...………....60-
61
5.10.2 Negative Effects of Tourism in Coastal Bangladesh………..……....61-
62

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION

6.1 Lessons Learnt from the Industrial Trip and How it would Improve Our
Academic Knowledge as a Student of Environmental Science and Disaster
Management…....................................................................................................63-64
6.2 Suggestions to Maintain the Sustainability of the Biodiversity and Coastal
Environment of Bangladesh………………………………………………....….64-
65

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Map of Southeastern Bangladesh…………………………………...

………..2
Fig. 2: Washing Department Workflow……………………………………………
10

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Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of the ETP of Pacific
Jeans……………………………..13
Fig. 4: Universal Jeans Limited (Production Unit of Pacific Jeans)
………...............14
Fig 5: Schematic diagram of
ETP…………………………………………………..15
Fig. 6: Tertiary Period’s rock layer in Rangamati……………....
…………………..18
Fig. 7: Biological weathering in the rock of Rangamati…………………….....
…....18
Fig 8: Mass wasting on the bank of Kaptai Lake………………………………...
….19
Fig 9: Concretion………………………………………………………………..
….20
Fig. 10: Calcareous Sandstone
Band……………………………………………….20
Fig. 11: Fossiliferous Conglomerate………………………………………...……..21
Fig. 12: Kaptai Lake,
Rangamati…………………………………………………...22
Fig. 13: View from the summit of Konglak Pahar, Sajek
Valley…………………...23
Fig. 14: Sajek Valley, Rangamti……………………………………………...
…….24
Fig. 15: Naf River (Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar)
…………………………………………..26
Fig. 16: Fish Biodiversity in Saint Martin’s
Island………………………………....29
Fig. 17: Jellyfish……………………………………………………………………
31
Fig. 18: Keya Tress of St. Martin’s Island……………………………………….…
31
Fig. 19: Landforms of Cox’s Bazar……………………………………………...…
38

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Fig. 20: Schematic cross-section of the Cox’s Bazar coastal plain …………………
39
Fig. 21: Topographic map of Teknaf Peninsula (by contour line)………………..…
43
Fig. 22: Season wise Cyclone Distribution……………………..
………………….56

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Number of Fish, Mollusks, Crabs and Echinoderms recorded in St.

Martin’s
Island…………………………………………………………………….......…29-30
Table 2: Different types of Corals found in St. Martin’s Island…………...……..…
32
Table 3: Seagrass species found in St. Martin’s
Island………………………….....32
Table 4: Areal extent of landform types based on 1995 aerial
photographs…….....39
Table 5: Landform Characteristics of the Cox’s Bazar coastal plain…………...39-
40
Table 6: Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA) of
Bangladesh……………………......45

vi
vii
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aims and Objectives of the Industrial Trip
The main objective of the Industrial Tour is to fulfill the academic requirement as well
as together practical and theatrical knowledge about wastewater treatment and
management of textile industries in Bangladesh. We also visited biodiversity-rich hill
tracts to acquire knowledge about the ecosystem and geography of the hilly region.
With a great deal of importance, we also observed the coastal environmental condition
of Cox’s Bazar district and St. Martin’s Island. In addition to the principle objectives,
the following are some of the common but significant objectives of this type of study:

 To know about the company profile.

 To enhance the learning experience through involvement in the industrial and
commercial field, thus enabling us to relate theoretical concepts with practical
situations.
 To observe and learn the functions of different phases of the ETP.
 To acquire geographical knowledge about the hilly region.
 Geological structure observation of the study areas.
 Ecological observation of visited places.
 Observation of Flora and Fauna of study areas.
 To observe the impacts of tourism in the visited places.
 Environmental aspects and hazards/disasters in coastal Bangladesh.
 To know the lifestyle and livelihood of the people of coastal areas.
 Geomorphology and formation history of St. Martin’s Island.

1.2 Summary of the Tour Plan and Locations

The Industrial tour was very special as it was the first trip to south-eastern Bangladesh
where we finally got the chance to observe wastewater treatment processes and it’s
management in the textile industry, later we visited different places of Chittagong Hill
Tracts, Cox’s Bazar sea beach, and St. Martin’s Island.
On 25th February 2020, we started our journey by bus at 5 p.m. from Bangabandhu
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University campus to Chittagong
with our batchmates and honorable teachers. We stopped at ‘Horina Ghat for having
dinner at 10:30 p.m. During the early hours of the morning on 26th February 2020, we
reached Pahartali, Chittagong. We stayed there for like 2 hours had our breakfast and
took some rest. Then we left for Patenga Sea Beach and enjoyed its beauty. After that,
we went to the Chittagong Export Processing Zone (CEPZ) where we visited Universal
Jeans Ltd a production unit of Pacific Jeans. We attended a conference there and
observed ETP phases and washing departments in groups.
After having our launch we again started our journey to Khagrachari and reached there
at 9 p.m. We stayed the night in a hotel and left for Dighinala Upazilla early in the
morning. Then we started our journey through the hilly road in Chander Gari and
reached Sajek Valley around 12 p.m. We took some rest in a hotel room and had our

1
launch. At 4 p.m. we went to Konglak Pahar and climbed its summit and explored the
place until evening. In the evening all our batchmates and honorable teachers gathered
in Sajek Helipad and spent some quality time there.

Fig. 1: Map of South-eastern Bangladesh

On 28th January 2020 late morning, we again left for Dighinala in Chander Gari. After
reaching there we got on our bus and started our journey to Rangamati. Along the way,
we visited Alutila Cave and stayed there like 1 hour. Again we started our journey to
Rangamati and reached Rangamati at 7 p.m. We stayed the night in a hotel. On 29 th

2
February 2020 early in the morning, we left for Kaptai Lake after having our breakfast.
On 29th February 2020, we traveled through beautiful Kaptai Lake in a boat and
observed rock layers of the Tertiary Period. Around 11 a.m. we went to Shovlong
Jhorna and explored the place for more than 1 hour. Again we got back in the boat and
went to have our launch. Then we visited the Hanging Bridge at 3.30 p.m. for 30
minutes or so. We returned to our hotel at 5 p.m. and left for Cox’s Bazar by bus in the
evening. It was another long journey.
We reached Cox’s Bazar on 1st March 2020 at 1 a.m. and stayed the night in a hotel. In
the morning we went to Cox’s Bazar Beach and in the afternoon after having our
launch we left for Inani Beach through the Cox's Bazar-Teknaf Marine Drive road. We
stayed there till evening and returned to our hotel. Then many of our batchmates
individually went to the Burmese market. We stayed the night in the same hotel and in
the early morning of 2nd March 2020 we left for St. Martin’s Island. We reached Teknaf
at 8 a.m. and got on the ship. The ship's journey was very memorable as our ship
approached the destination a flock of birds was following our ship. After 3 hours at
noon, we reached St. Martin’s Island. We visited St. Martin’s Beach area in the late
afternoon. In the night we ate our dinner in Sea Find Resorts and everyone gathered for
the last time.
On 3rd March 2020 after eating our breakfast we went to Chhera Dwip in a boat and
explored the place for 2 hours. It was very beautiful felt like we were on a Caribbean
Island. Around 3 p.m. we got on the ship and left for Teknaf. It again took around 3
hours. Then we started our journey from Teknaf to our campus. We returned to our
campus on 4th March 2020 around 12 p.m.
1.3 Relevance of the Visited Places and Industry Visited during the Tour to Our
Current Program
Field observation is the proper way for attaining knowledge. This tour opened a new
horizon in enriching the storehouse of practical knowledge in Environmental Science
and Disaster Management.
At first, we visited Pacific Jeans where got our chance to practically observe the
different phases of ETP. Wastewater from textile industries is polluting the canals,
rivers, and many other water bodies and making them unsafe for all living beings. ETP
can preserve the natural environment against pollution. Previously we only had book
knowledge about ETP. It is a major part of the Water and Wastewater Treatment
course. Our idea about it was vague at the beginning but now we clearly understand
different phases of ETP. We got an idea about the physical, chemical, and biological
phases of wastewater treatment. We also got the opportunity to observe the washing
department and how they conduct all the processes sustainably.
Then we visited biodiversity-rich Rangamati and gathered geological knowledge about
hills. Due to human intervention and extensive tourism biodiversity of hill tracts is
facing a serious threat. We noticed Sajek Valley was overcrowded and people were
throwing bottles after drinking cold drinks and packets after eating chips or cakes
which is harming the environment of this area. The government needs to implement

3
strict environmental laws in these areas. It will raise awareness among local people and
tourists about the environmental and economic value of these biodiversity-rich hill
tracts. But in some of our visited places, Environmental Law was in effect especially in
the CEPZ and St. Martin’s Island. This is related to our course Environmental Law,
Protocol and Ethics.
Next, we visited the coastal region of southeastern Bangladesh. The coastal region of
Bangladesh has always been vulnerable to hazards and disasters due to the geological
location of Bangladesh. We observed the coastal environmental condition of Cox’s
Bazar district and St. Martin’s Island. We gathered practical knowledge about the
components of the coastal zone and coastal ecosystem which is related to our Coastal
Environment and Management course. It was also our first field trip where the coral
was associated with the ecosystem. St. Martin’s Island and its unique biodiversity face
serious threats due to the recent human intervention in the island. Visiting the coastal
region has helped us to understand our course Coastal Environment and Management.

4
 CHAPTER TWO: INDUSTRIAL VISIT
2.1 Overview of Pacific Jeans

Name of the Organization Universal Jeans Limited

Location of the Company Plot #9-11, Sector-6/A

Chittagong Export Processing Zone
Chittagong, Bangladesh.

Head Office Plot #14-19, Sector #5

Chittagong Export Processing Zone-
4223
Chittagong, Bangladesh.

Communication Media Phone: +88031-7410068

Fax: +88-031-740153
Web: wwww.pacificjeans.com

Type of the Company Private Limited Company

Category of the Company C-Type (100% Bangladesh Investment)

Date of Establishment 1984

Production Line Jeans (Men, Women, Boys, Girls)

Total Employees 29,000

Chairman of the Company Md. Nasir Uddin

Production Unit 5 Units

Production Rate 36 M/yr

Material Searching Area Indonesia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China,

India, Dubai, Pakistan, Mexico, Japan,
South Korea.
Export To USA, Europe, Japan, and Canada

Nature of the employee Permanent worker (Skilled, Semi-

Skilled, Unskilled)

5
 Working Environment Good

2.2 Vision or Goal of Pacific Jeans

“Be a Global Life Wear Solution Company”
2.3 Type of the Industry
It is mandatory to obtain Environmental Clearance for every type of industry and
project as per Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995 (Amended 2010). For
the purpose of issuance of Environmental Clearance Certificate, the industrial units and
projects shall, in consideration of their site and impact on the environment, be classified
into the following four categories:
 Green
 Orange-A
 Orange-B
 Red
In The Environment Conservation Rules, 1997 (Schedule-1) it’s mentioned that
Garments and sweater production falls under the category of Orange-B. That means our
visited industry Universal Jeans Limited (Production Unit of Pacific Jeans) is an
Orange-B category industry as it is a Garment factory.
2.4 Buyers of Their Products
Pacific Jeans has goodwill and a unique position in the international market for quality
Jeans Garments. For that reason the company enjoying great advantage for
merchandising. Pacific Jeans has no specific rules and regulation to contract with the
buyers. Buyers are classified into two groups-
 Fixed Buyers
 New Buyers
Registered buyers of the Paific Jeans Limited are-

 UNI QLO
 Zara
 H&M
 C&A
 Kohl’S
 Gap
 Old Navy
 Tom Tailor
 Celio
 Asos

6
  River Island
 Marks and Spencer
 Banama Republic
 American Eagle
 Bonita
 Mustang
 J. Crew
 Engelbert Strauss
 Tesco

2.5 Role of Pacific Jeans in Maintaining Environmental Sustainability

Pacific Jeans is complying with all applicable environmental laws and regulations.
They are actively working to improve the environmental performance of their
operations. This includes measures to mitigate adverse environmental impacts, and to
improve material and resource efficiency, reduce waste and prevent pollution.
Sustainable manufacturing framework required to achieve environmental sustainability
for green earth.
Role of Pacific Jeans in maintaining Environmental Sustainability-

 Actively participating & submitting HIGG Index FEM 3.0 & Social Module.
 Actively participated CP and PAcT program to reduce Energy & Water
consumption to ensure Environmental Sustainability.
 Sustainable Wash program for different buyers which help them to reduce
Water & Energy consumption, Manpower and Chemical.
 Participating H2O water management program of buyer GAP Inc.
 ETP modification/ Automation done to get more sustainable result with less
chemical and energy consumption.
 BEPI- All factories are submitted self-assessment BEPI.
 ZDHC- All of our factories are registered in ZDHC (ZERO DISCHARGE OF
HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS) Gateway and conducting the waste water test
twice in a year through 3rd party (Bureau Veritas) as per standard/ guideline of
ZDHC.
 Clean Chain- All of our factories are registered in Clean Chain and uploading
the Chemical Inventory.
 In- House accredited testing Lab.

2.6 Measures Taken for Maintaining Environmental Sustainability

It is Pacific Jeans honest commitment to comply all local laws for the well-being of
their employees & environment in a sustainable way. They took different measures for
maintaining Environmental Sustainability in different sectors. Some best practices are-
 Water
 Rain water harvesting

7
  Installed RO with UV Lamp for Clean drinking water for workers.
 Installed modern wash machine to reduce water & chemical consumption.
 Installed water flow meter in the outlet & inlet of production process & others
areas for proper monitoring of water consumption.
 Reduced water consumption by spraying Enzyme in machine instead of
conventional way.
 Energy
 70Kw/H Solar Power Plant Installed for lighting in the production floor.
 100% LED lights installed in the factories.
 Installed servo motors in the sewing machine to reduce energy consumption.
 Installed inverter in the dryer and Air Compressor to reduce energy
consumption.
 Installed modern boiler with economizer and auto blow down system to reduce
energy consumption.
 Installed cogeneration boiler running with exhaust of gas operated generators.
So no energy used at all for this boiler. Which is also reduced air emission.
 Installed condense steam recovery system.
 We are using low Curing temperature resin for Wrinkle, 3D to save energy.
 We are using Cold enzymes (For DE-sizing, Enzyme stone, Bio-polishing)
which save steam.
 Emission
 Recycling material in production.
 Moving towards paperless office.
 Planting trees/adopted gardens etc.

2.7 Washing Department

Universal Jeans Ltd. has independent washing unit. This department is responsible for
washing the garments in required way. Garment’s washing is important for fabrics
softness, contrast, one of a kind looks and preshrink. Also removes dust, dirt, oil spot,
size materials, and starch present in the garments.
Once the garment has been finished with all the operations then they are sent to the
washing department for the washing that has to be done for that particular style
according to the buyers specification and hence it plays vital role in the final feel and
texture of the garment which has to match the specifications of the buyer 100%.
2.7.1 Types of washing
There are two types of washing-
1. Wet wash
 Normal wash
 Pigment wash
 Bleach wash

8
  Caustic wash
 Acid wash
 Horizontal hand scraping machine
 Vertical hand scarping machine
 Automatic laser blasting
 Sand blasting
 Tacking machine
 PP spray booth
 Curing oven
 Wrinkle machine
 Crunch machine
 Blowout machine
 Grinding machine
2. Dry wash
 Computerized font load washing machine
 Automated side load washing machine with direct heating system
 New generation computerized front load dying machine with built in
color kitchen
 Computerized steam dryer
 Extractor

Based on the use of chemicals washing can be divided into two types:
1. Sustainable wash: Sustainable wash requires less water, less Electricity. The
machine used in this process is called Brongo machine (Made in Italy).
2. Stone wash: This process does not require any chemical.
2.7.2 Washing department workflow
The following stages are carried out step by step. Wet process / chemical process is
followed by the dry process. Those steps are selected according to the design and effect
asked from the buyer.
Washing stages are given below:

9
 Receive goods from different sewing unit

In house

 Shade
Maintain
Sample Section  Receive
for wash
 Test

Shade checking before wash

 Dry
process
Washing
 Wet
Process

Hydro Extractor

 Steam
Drying Dryer
 Gas
dryer

Shade Checking

If shade variation occurs then again go

to wash

Finishing

Fig. 2: Washing Department Workflow

2.7.3 Washing chemicals
All the chemicals used in washing department are ZDHC (Zero Discharge of
Hazardous Chemicals).
10
  Enzyme
 Detergent
 Acetic acid
 Bleaching powder
 Sodium hyposulfite
 Caustic Soda
 Soda ash
 Sodium bicarbonate
 Potassium permanganate
 Salt (Sodium Chloride)
 Buffer
 Hydrogen peroxide
 Stabilizer
 Fixing agent
 Catanizer
 Optical brightener
 Resin
 Sodium metabisulphite

2.8 Operation of Effluent Treatment Plant

Screening
The first unit operation generally encountered in wastewater treatment plants is
screening. A screen is a device with openings , generally of uniform size, that is used to
retain solids found in the wastewater to be treated.
The principal role of screening is to remove coarse materials from the flow stream that
could

 Damage the subsequent process equipments

 Reduce overall treatment process reliability and effectiveness
 Sometimes it contaminate waterways.
 Eliminate materials that may inhibit the beneficial reuse of biosolids.

Equalization Tank
Flow equalization is a method used to overcome the operational problems caused by
flow rate variations. It simply is the damping of flow rate variations to achieve a
constant or nearly constant flow rate and can be applied in a number of different
situations depending on the characteristics of the collection system. It improves the
performance of the downstream processes and reduce the size and cost of downstream
treatment facilities.
DAF (Dissolved Air Flotation)

11
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is a water treatment process that clarifies wastewaters (or
other waters) by the removal of suspended matter such as oil or solids. The removal is
achieved by dissolving air in the water or wastewater under pressure and then releasing
the air at atmospheric pressure in a flotation tank basin. The released air forms tiny
bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter causing the suspended matter to float to
the surface of the water where it may then be removed by a skimming device. The feed
water to the DAF float tank is often (but not always) dosed with a coagulant (such as
ferric chloride or aluminum sulfate) to coagulate the colloidal particles and/or
a flocculant to conglomerate the particles into bigger clusters.
A portion of the clarified effluent water leaving the DAF tank is pumped into a small
pressure vessel (called the air drum) into which compressed air is also introduced. This
results in saturating the pressurized effluent water with air. The air-saturated water
stream is recycled to the front of the float tank and flows through a pressure reduction
valve just as it enters the front of the float tank, which results in the air being released
in the form of tiny bubbles. Bubbles form at nucleation sites on the surface of the
suspended particles, adhering to the particles. As more bubbles form, the lift from the
bubbles eventually overcomes the force of gravity. This causes the suspended matter to
float to the surface where it forms a froth layer which is then removed by a skimmer.
The froth-free water exits the float tank as the clarified effluent from the DAF unit.
Some DAF unit designs utilize parallel plate packing material (e.g. lamellas) to provide
more separation surface and therefore to enhance the separation efficiency of the unit.
FAB (Fludized Aerobic Bed) 
The FAB process is the latest advance in attached growth aerobic biological treatment
technology. FBR employs Ring Pac media, neutrally buoyant bio film carrier elements,
to achieve outstanding BOD/COD removal productivity from a compact bioreactor. In
Fluidized Bed Reactors, the liquid to be treated is pumped through a bed of small
media at a sufficient velocity to cause fluidization. In the fluidized state the media
provide a large specific surface for attached biological growth and allow biomass
concentrations in the range 10-40 kg/m3 to develop.
For aerobic treatment processes the reactor is aerated. This is done by recalculating the
liquid from the reactor to an oxygenator where air, or possibly oxygen, is bubbled. To
overcome problems related to high re-circulation rates, needed when there is high
oxygen demand in the reactor, the reactor might be aerated directly. The basis for the
use of fluidized bed systems is the immobilization of bacteria on solid surfaces. Many
species of bacteria (and also other microorganisms) have the ability for adhering to
supporting matrices. In this process, a volume of Ring Pac media is immersed in water
and is fluidized (kept in constant motion) through the movement of gas and liquid in
the treatment reactor. As the media supports a biomass concentration several times that
achievable in activated sludge systems, treatment is significantly more productive.
Tube Settler

12
The main aim of tube settlers is to minimize the vertical distance that a small floc
particle must settle before agglomerating into larger particles. Water treatment is a
major requirement both for raw water for drinking and wastewater management. Both
have particles which need to sediment in order to obtain clear water. Tube settler design
involves the use of multiple tubular channels sloping at an angle of 60 degrees and
adjacent to each other. This helps in increasing the settling area effectively. Tube settler
design reduces the depth significantly compared to the conventional clarifier. This
helps in reduction of settling time.
Tube settler collects solids into a compact mass and slides it down the tube channel.
When using tube settlers water flow is upward through the tubes and the solids slide
down against the current using gravity.
Sludge Dewatering
Sludge dewatering is the practice of minimizing waste by volume to prepare for its
effective disposal. Sludge originates during the process of treating wastewater before
the water can be released back into the environment. Long presenting a challenge for
the water treatment industry, sludge is the by-product extracted from the slurry during
the process of industrial or municipal wastewater treatment. Dewatering the sludge
with a dewatering filter press significantly reduces its weight and its volume before
disposal.
Filter Feed Tank
The clarified water is passed to the filter feed tank. From here the treated water is
pumped to the carbon and sand filters, where the suspended solids, colour and odour
will be removed.
Final Tank
After completing the treatment process the final treated water stored in treated water
tank and used for gardening or flushing applications. It is also safe for disposal in water
bodies or discharges back to the earth. The treatment process takes place at uniform
flow rate. The Plant is designed for 20 hours of operation period.

Equalization DAF Unit

Influent Screening
Tank

Filter Feed Tube Settler

Final Tank FAB Unit 1,2
Tank

Effluent Sludge
Dewatering

13
 Sludge

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the ETP of Pacific Jeans

2.9 Drawbacks and Suggestions to Improve Environmental Sustainability
A growing number of companies are treating sustainability as an important objective in
their strategy and operations to increase growth and global competitiveness. Pacific
Jeans is complying with all environmental laws and regulations to maintain the
environmental sustainability. But we noticed some drawbacks during our Industrial
visit. The major problems that are confronted by Pacific Jeans in there to the road to
environmental sustainability are given below-
 They don’t reuse the treated water in the industry.
 Noise level is too high inside the industry which can have detrimental health
effect to the workers and employees.
 In the washing department when they use the bleaching method, it created waste
water.
Some suggestions to improve the environmental sustainability of Pacific Jeans-
 Address sustainability in a coordinated, integrated, and formal manner, rather
than in an ad hoc, unconnected and informal manner.
 Improving internal environmental quality along with a safe and healthy working
place.
 Pacific Jeans should follow the Eco-industrial park model. The eco-industrial
park can reduce waste and pollution, efficiently share resources (such as
information, materials, water, energy, infrastructure, and natural resources), and
help achieve sustainable development, with the intention of increasing
economic gains and improving environmental quality.
 Integrate sustainability across business functions and focus more on the long
term.
2.9 Relevant Photos

14
 Fig. 4: Universal Jeans Limited (Production Unit of Pacific Jeans)

Fig. 5: Design of the Effluent Treatment Plant of Universal Jeans Limited

15
 CHAPTER THREE: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE
SOUTH-EASTERN REGION OF BANGLADESH
3.1 Physiography of South-eastern Bangladesh
According to the physiographic of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts falls under
the Northern and Eastern Hill unit and High Hill or Mountain Ranges sub-unit. Based
on the land forms, the physiography of Chittagong Hill Tracts is divided into two parts.
Such as-

 Mountainous region of tertiary period

 Traces of Pleistocene Period

At present, all the mountain ranges of the Chittagong Hill Tracts are almost hogback
ridges. They rise steeply, thus looking far more impressive than height would imply.
Most of the ranges have scarps in the west, with cliffs and waterfalls (Akondo, 2019).
The region is characterized by a huge network of trellis and dendrites drainage
consisting of some major rivers draining into Bay of Bengal. The major rivers and
Karnafuli, sangu, matamuhuri and feni. Within the hill tracts, the Karnafuli has several
important tributaries, of which Chengi, Kasalong and Rainkhiang are the main ones.
Generally the hill ranges and the river valleys are longitudinally aligned. Four ranges,
with an average elevation of over three hundred meters, strike in a north-south direction
in the northern part of the hill tract districts. These are the Phoromain range
(Phoromain, 463m), Dolajeri range (Langtrai, 429m), Bhuachhari (Changpai, 611m)
and Barkal range (Thangnang, 725m).
South of the Karnafuli River within the Chittagong Hill Tracts, there are seven main
mountain ranges with Bangladesh. There are: Muranja range (Basitaung, 664m), Wayla
range (most of this range is in Myanmar), Chimbook range (Tindu, 898m), Batimain

16
range (Batitaung, 526m), Politai range (Keukradang, 884m; Ramiu Taung 921m),
Saichal-Mowdok range (Bilaisari, 669m) and Saichal range.
The three highest peak of Bangladesh- Tahjindong (1280m), Mowdok Mual (1052m)
and Keokradong (1230m) are located in Bandarban District. The Raikhiang Lake, the
highest lake of Bangladesh also situated in Bandarban. Bandarban is dense of hill.
Mountain peaks are seen over the all direction in the range of eye.
Cox's Bazar lies on a coastal plain in the southeastern corner of Bangladesh. Cox's
Bazar is located 150 km (93 mi) south of the divisional headquarter city of Chittagong.
Cox's Bazar town has an area of 6.85 km2 (2.64 sq mi), and is bounded by Bakkhali
River on the north and East, Bay of Bengal in the West, and Jhilwanj Union in the
south. The beach in Cox's Bazar has a gentle slope and with an unbroken length of
155 km (96 mi) it is often termed the "longest natural unbroken sea beach" in the world
(Akondo, 2019).
From above, the plain appears to bulge out into the Bay of Bengal. Along the shore is
an extensive area of beach and dunes. Most of the city is built on a floodplain that is
lower in elevation than the dunes, making it more susceptible to flooding due
to cyclones and storm surges. The Cox's Bazar coastal plain was formed after the sea
reached its present level around 6,500 years ago, with the area of the current floodplain
originally forming a sediment sink that has since been gradually filled in by the
Bakkhali river as well as smaller streams coming down from the hills.
3.2 Physiography of Saint Martin’s Island
Saint Martin is an only tropical island of Bangladesh having coral and adjacent
rich biodiversity which is built of organic material derived from associate
organism of coral ecosystem. The St. Martin’s island is the only coral bearing the
offshore island of Bangladesh. This tiny island in the Bay of Bengal is located at
about 10 km south from the south-easternmost tip of the mainland and lies between
20°34' & 20°39' N latitude, and 92° 18' & 92°21 E longitude. It is situated the tip
of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula and forming the southernmost part of
Bangladesh (Kabir, 2006). Demography of the Saint Martin island is: about 3700
population belonging 535. Geography of the island The geographical position of the
island is between 92018’ and 92021’E longitude and 30034’ and 20039’N latitude.
Saint Martin island is the southernmost small continental island of Bay of Bengal,
Bangladesh region. The island is situated 8 km away from west of the north coast of
Myanmar and 9 km away from the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsular tip of Bangladesh
and it is separated from the main land by a channel which is about 9 km wide.
Geographically the island is under the district of Cox’s Bazar and is has one union and
4 villages. Locally it is known as Narikel Jinjira and it is almost flat and is about 3.5m
above the mean sea level. The 9.66 km wide channel between main land and the island
and the channel is much shallower than the open sea. There are reefs from 10-15 km to
the west-northwest. St. Martin island is endowed with vast marine and land resources
having great biodiversity significance. It is about 8 kilometres (5 miles) west of the

17
northwest coast of Myanmar, at the mouth of the Naf River. St. Martin’s Island
consists of 5 distinct physiographic areas-

 Uttar Para or Narikel jinjira is the northern part of the Island with a maximum
length, along with the north-south axis, of 2,134m, and a maximum width
(along with the east-west axis) of 1,402 m. There is a shallow lagoon in the
middle of Uttarpara and it is connected to the sea during high tide by a narrow
channel on the western coast (Kabir, 2006).
 Madhya Para or the central narrow belt connects the southern and northern part.
The narrowest part of the neck is known as Golachipa which is 1,524m
long and 518mwide at its maximum.
 Dakhin Para is the southern part of the island and is 1,929 m long, with an
additional narrow tail of 1,890 m towards the southeast, and at its maximum
is 975m wide. There are two small dead lagoons and a stretch of marshy land in
Dakshinpara.
 Cheradip is the southernmost tip of the Island and extending south-east from
Dakhin Para is a rocky reef that is about 1.8 km long and between 50 and 300 m
wide.
 Golachipa is a narrow neck of land connecting Uttar Para with Madhya Para.

3.3 Observed Rock/ Depositional Features

3.3.1 Observed rock in Rangamati
According to the geological history of Bangladesh, Rangamati was started to form at
Tertiary Period of Cenozoic Era. Especially it was formed at the Oligocene and
Miocene Epoch (Akondo, 2019).
We observed the Rock’s Layer of Tertiary Period in Rangamati. The rocks are mostly
metamorphic rock. For many years the weathering processes are continuing. So, these
rocks are breakable by small force. They are at the nearest stage to convert into soil.
We also found clay rock.

18
 Fig 6: Tertiary Period’s rock layer in Rangamati

 Biological weathering are effort to change the rock into soil:

Fig 7: Biological weathering in the rock of Rangamati

 Mass wasting may occurred due to physical, biological weathering and gravity:

19
 Fig 8: Mass wasting on the bank of Kaptai Lake
3.3.2 Observed rock in St. Martin’s Island
During the two days we identified a series of marine sedimentary rocks which are
exposed on the St. Martin’s island like-

 Calcareous concretion
 Fossiliferous conglomerate
 Calcareous sandstone band
 Conquina bed

Concretion: A concretion is a hard, compact mass of matter formed by the

precipitation of mineral cement within the spaces between particles, and is found in
sedimentary rock or soil. The original occurrence of the concretion was within the
Bokabil formation of Surma group, which was tilted (easterly dip) due to tectonic
activity. During the time of last marine transgression, the whole area was subjected
to erosion. All the soft materials (sand, silt, clay) were eroded away (Kabir, 2019).
However, the heavy concretions could not be carried away and directly fall on beds that
are foreign to the concretions. Coral mainly build in hard rock such as concretion and
sand blocks. It is seen on top of Surma and recent deposit in the Northwestern coastline
of St. Martin's Island.

20
 Fig 9: Concretion
Calcareous Sandstone Band: Calcareous stone is made mainly of calcium
carbonate, a chemical compound commonly found in natural stone, shells, and pearls.
It's sensitive to acidic substances. Calcareous sandstones bands are very hard and
compact, composed of very fine-grained, well-sorted sands, brownish grey to brown in
color, and calcareous in nature. Most of these have no internal structure but
occasionally some bedding and lamination are present in some bands. It is found on the
Northwestern coastline (Hossain and Islam, 2006).

Fig 10: Calcareous Sandstone Band

Fossiliferous Conglomerate: Coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock, composed of
rounded to subangular fragments larger than 2mm in diameter typically containing

21
fine-grained particles in the interstices and fossils. The fossiliferous conglomerate was
seen near the coastguard section (Hossain, 2020).

Fig 11: Fossiliferous Conglomerate

22
 CHAPTER FOUR: BIODIVERSITY OF THE SE BANGLADESH
4.1 Floral and faunal diversity of Visited Places
4.1.1 Biodiversity of Rangamati and Bandarban:
The Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT) is situated in the south-eastern corner of Bangladesh
bordering Myanmar in the south-east, the state of Tripura on the north and Mizoram on
the east, and the district of Chittagong on the west. Area of CHT is 13,294 sq. km,
which is about one-tenth of the country. Among the total area of the CHT, more than
75% is considered as forest area and the forests of CHT are ecologically classified as
Tropical wet-evergreen, Tropical semi-evergreen, Tropical moist-deciduous, Tropical
open deciduous and Savannah forests. The important reserve forests of CHT are
Kassalong reserve forests (159,449.7 ha), Raingkheong reserve forests (76,331.0 ha),
Sitapahar reserve forests (5,876.5 ha), 235.79 ha of Barkal reserve forests; and Sangu
and Matamuhury reserve comprises about 74,500 ha. There are three protected areas,
e.g. Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaptai National Park, and Sangu Valley Wildlife
Sanctuary (MoEF, 2001a).
Rangamati and Bandarban are one of the most ecologically diverse place of
Bangladesh. It contains evergreen to semi-evergreen tropical forests. Total area is
6,70,000 ha, which is 4.7% of the country’s surface area and 44% of the total forest
land managed by the FD. According to latest forest inventory have a growing stock of
23.93 million m3 of wood. The productivity of the forests declined to a range of 1.5 m 3
to 2.5 m3 per hectare per annum from 7 m3 to 8 m3 twenty years ago but the forests still
supply around 40% of the commercial timber production. Very rich in diverse varieties
of flora and fauna that supports approximately 400 evergreens to deciduous tree species
(MoEF, 2001a).

Fig 12: Kaptai Lake, Rangamati

23
Characteristics species:
Flora: Shegun (Tectona grandis), Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.), Gamar (Gmelina
arborea), Telsur (Hopea odorata), Toon (Toona ciliata), Champa (Michelia chamaca),
Chapalish (Artocarpus chaplasha), Civit (Swintonia floribunda), Karoi (Albizia spp.)
etc.
Fauna: Asian elephant (Elephas maxima), Spotted deer (Axis axis), Barking deer, Beer,
Monkey, Langur, numerous snakes and birds.

Fig 13: View from the summit of Konglak Pahar, Sajek Valley
Threatened species: The occurrence of 31 threatened plant species were confiremed in
KFR during the survey. Among them 24 were vulnerable and 7 were endangered.
Besides these 32 species were recorded as near threatened. Among 7 endangered
species one from shrubs (Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Wedd.), two from climbers
(Cucumis hystrix Chakrav and Myriopteron extensum (Wright & Arn.) K. Schums.)
One from epiphyte (Dischidia nummularia R. Br.), others belong to herbaceous plants
(Hedyotis thomsonii Hook. f., Crepidium biauritum (Lindl.) D.L. and Globba pendula
Roxb.). Among the vulnerable plants, 12 were tree species (Bhesa robusta (Roxb.)
Ding Hou, Hopea odorata Roxb., Horsfieldia kingii (Hook. f.) Warb., Licuala peltata
Roxb., Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk., Scaphium scaphigerum, Symplocos
macrophylla Wall. ex DC ssp. Macrophylla, Mangifera sylvatica Roxb., Diospyros
ramiflora Roxb., Terminalia chebula (Gaertn.) Retz., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex
DC.) Wight
& Arn and Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. Juss.); 4 were from shrubs (Harpullia
arborea (Blanco) Radlk., Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon, Mycetia longifolia
(Wall.) Kuntz. and Ixora spectabilis Wall. Ex G. Don) and 4 climbers (Rhaphidophora

24
glauca (Wallich) Schott, Stixis suaveolens (Roxburgh) Pierre, Bull., Willughbeia edulis
Roxb. and Dioscorea glabra Roxb) (IUCN, 2000).

Fig 14: Sajek Valley, Rangamati

4.1.2 Biodiversity of Cox’s Bazar
The biodiversity of coastal and marine ecosystems are very rich. . Bangladesh coast
supports more than 10 globally threatened migratory shorebirds, including Spoon-billed
Sandpiper, Asian dowitcher, Spotted Redshank, Nordman‘s Greenshank, Goliath Heron
and Indian Skimmers. The main block of natural mangrove forest in Cox’s Bazaar
coast, the hundred-year-old Chakoria Sunderban, occupied the low-lying saline
swamp at the mouth of the Matamuhuri River delta. The swamp consisted of
innumerable low-lying islands, which would mostly submerge at high tides. The
water would remain brackish up to the inner boundaries even during the rainy
season. Unlike the Sunderban mangrove forest along the southwestern coast of
Bangladesh, the Chakoria Sundarban was protected from the open sea by Moheshkhali
hills, an outlier of tertiary age. The presence of the forest along the coast is
recognized to provide a buffer against storm and erosion damage as well as
providing habitat for a variety of marine and terrestrial organisms. The vegetation
before forest removal consisted of saltwater halophytes with abundance of Dalbergia
spinosa and Aegialities rotundifolia. There were about 20 species of trees and none
attained a height of more than 12 meters. Mangroves occurred in specific ecological
zones on the islands, the coastal and riverine shorelines, and in the upland locations.
The area supported a very good habitat for different types of birds, mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, and fish (GoB, 2008).

25
The mangroves have since disappeared totally and the factors responsible for the
destruction of mangrove forest are removal of forest produces for fuel wood, high
grazing pressures, fishing, human settlement, salt, 12 production, and shrimp
farming. In addition to this, the fishermen built dams in the mouth of the
creeks, thereby disrupting tidal inundation and causing water stagnation. For this
change in hydrology, the seedlings in stagnant water failed to survive which
seriously affected forest regeneration (Hossain, 2001). Such interference, coupled
with the government policy of covering the reserve mangrove forest to shrimp farms
and human settlement, has led to the drastic depletion of the mangrove. Similarly
the polders though provide refuge restricts and disrupts tidal inundation and
exchange of nutrients that affect ecosystem and ecological services.
Down south along the coast the Cox’s Bazaar-Teknaf coastal area comprises a mosaic
of unique habitats and supports an assemblage of diverse ranges of flora and
fauna. Many of the fauna and flora species are nationally and globally important
and threatened, and therefore have got immense conservation significance. Rapid
expansion of economic activities, including conversion of mangroves to shrimp
farming and salt production, establishment of a large number of shrimp
hatcheries, expansion of huge unplanned tourism, unsustainable harvesting of
marine and estuarine resources, resulted in the rapid degradation of its habitat quality
and consequent loss of biodiversity, rendering the site to a critical state. These activities
have caused and have been causing disruption in ecological integrity and its
functioning leading to ecological imbalance (Ali and M, 2001). Realizing the
biodiversity degradation in the area and its consequences, the Government of
Bangladesh declared, along with few others, Cox’s Bazaar-Teknaf beach area and
Sonadia Island as Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA) under the provision of Article
I of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995. The Department of
Environment (DoE) is mandated for the management of the ECAs. The Sonadia
Island, located on the west of Cox’s Bazaar and south-southwest of Moheshkhali
Island and between the right bank of the Moheshkhali Channel Estuary and left bank
of Kutubdia Channel Estuary. The island hosts remnants of the original mangrove
forest crisscrossed by several tidal creeks and channels. It is one of the biodiversity
hotspots and supports some internationally significant wildlife species, particularly
ome critically endangered migratory birds and marine turtles. The surrounding Bay of
Bengal (BOB) waters support several species of endangered cetaceans. Recently a
unique Porifera - Siliceous Sand-Sponge (Tetilla dactyloidea) has been reported for
the first time in Bangladesh from the tidal creeks of Sonadia Island (NSP, 2006).
Teknaf Peninsula is one of the longest sandy beach ecosystems (80 kilometres) in the
world. It represents a transitional ground for the fauna of the Indo-Himalayan and
Indo-Malayan ecological sub-regions. Important habitats at the site include
mangrove, mudflats, beaches and sand dunes, canals and lagoons and marine habitat.
The site provides breeding areas for two globally threatened species of marine turtles
and, lying along international bird migration flyways, serves as a significant bird
area. Its inshore waters also host globally threatened marine mammals. Other

26
important species include several crustacean species, fishes and molluscs (MoEF,
2001b).
The Cox’s Bazaar-Teknaf ECA’s northern, western and southern boundaries are
delineated by waterways – the northern boundary by the Moheshkhali Channel
from the Bay of Bengal up the channel as far as Ghorokghata; the western
boundary by the beach along the Bay of Bengal; and the southern boundary by the tip
of the Peninsula bordered by both the Bay and the Naaf River Estuary. The site’s
eastern boundary follows mouza lines and incorporates the mouzas of Kurushkul
and Jhilonja (Cox’s Bazaar Upazilla), Jungle Khuniapalong, Jungle Dohapalong,
Pechar Dweep and Jungle Goaliapalong (Ramu Upazilla), Jaliapalong and Inani
(Ukhia Upazilla) and Shilkhali, Baradail, Lengurbil, Teknaf, Sabrang and Shahparir
Dweep (Teknaf Upazilla). The boundaries of the Shilkhali, Baradail, Lengurbil
and Teknaf mouzas are shared with the adjacent Teknaf Reserve Forest or
Teknaf Game Reserve. While most mouzas share boundaries with adjacent
mouzas, the Sabrang and Shahparir Dweep mouzas share boundaries with the Naaf
River estuary (MoEF, 2001b).

Fig 15: Naf River (Teknaf, Cox’s Bazar)

The area acts as a corridor between terrestrial and marine biodiversity, with the site’s
habitats including sand dunes and beaches, mudflats, mangrove and estuaries facing the
Bay of Bengal.
Sand dunes and beaches: The sandy beach extends the length of the site from
Moheshkhali Channel in the north to the tip of the Teknaf Peninsula in the south, a
distance of some 75 km. Sand dunes occur along the beach, with dune vegetation
distinguishable between several zones (Rahman et.al. 2001). Vegetation is

27
relatively sparse with few plants in the open pioneer zone immediately preceding the
drift line. The vegetation is denser in the herbaceous zone with some mat forming
herbs, and a mixture of herbaceous plants and shrubs including climbing species
occurs in the middle mixed or bushy zone. Tree species interspersed with patches of
low marshy areas dominate the inner inland zone, which merges into the hinterland
of mudflats, sandy beaches and cultivated fields.
Mudflats: The 100-150 ha of grassy mudflat at Badar Mokam (Shahparir Dweep)
is important spoon-billed sandpiper (Calidris pygmaea) habitat. Intertidal mudflats
along the Naaf River are suitable wader feeding ground. Large extent of mudflats
at Subrang and Shahparir Dweep have been converted and used for salt production
(Islam, 2003).
Mangrove: Sparse patches of naturally occurring mangrove occur along the estuarine
muddy banks of khals running down the hills, adjacent to the sand dunes along the
coast line. Mangrove occurs in larger areas along the Naaf River estuary in Teknaf,
but does not exceed 10-20m in width at any one place and has been mostly planted by
the Forest Department (Coastal). Small patches of natural mangrove thickets
occur sporadically along the Naaf River riverbank and along the Reju Khal (Hossain,
2001).
Estuaries: The major estuaries of the site include the Moheshkhali Channel and Bak-
khali River in the north and the Naaf River in the south east, which provide significant
habitat for flora and fauna including mudflats and mangrove. The Naaf River estuary
is the most unique and highly productive ecosystem within the site. Several major
canals occur along the length of the coastline, and are connected to the inland canals
during high tide. The Reju khal is the main one, entering the Bay of bengal between
the Ramu and Ukhia Upazillas; others include the Baharchara, Rajarchara, Inani,
Monkhali, Katabunia and Shilkhali canals. Hundreds of other small canals also occur
along the coast line, originating from hill streams and carrying freshwater runoff to the
BOB. The smaller ones remain dry throughout the winter, only becoming active with
the monsoonal runoff. There are more than two hundred culverts and bridges
along the Marine Drive to facilitate drainage of the hill streams.
Two hundred and forty eight (248) species of plants were recorded from 65
spots along the roads and homesteads close to the coastal areas. Of those, 47
were timber species, 35 were fruit species, 34 were ornamental and 31 were
medicinal plants. Among these five were rare including Clinogyne dichotoma
(Patipata), Gymnema acuminata, Mangifera sylvatica (Jangliam, Uria), Rauvolfia
serpentina (Sharpagandha) and Terminalia chebula (Haritaki). A total of 128 species
of sand dune vegetation have been recorded from the coast. Of the dune grasses,
creeping plants, herbs, shrubs and tree species recorded, the largest number of taxa
belonged to the Poaceae (Gramineae) and Fabaceae (Leguminosae) families. Estuarine
vegetation adjacent to sand dunes included mangrove patches dominated by Acanthus
ilicifolius and Phragmites karka (IUCN, 2000).

28
Algal formations are found on the boulders at Inani and between Teknaf and Shilkhali.
Invasive alien species known to occur within the site include Mimosa pudica, Ipomea
carnea, Lantana camara, Mikania cordata and Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth). A
total of 90 mammals were recorded from the Cox’s Bazaar – Teknaf Peninsula,
of which 22 were fairly common, 18 were few, 40 were occasional and 10 were
extinct (NCSIP-1 1997). At present important terrestrial mammal species include
Elephas maximus (Asiatic Elephant). Seven species are globally endangered as per
the IUCN Red List, 2015 and a further 14 vulnerable. At the national level, 24 species
are critically endangered, 23 endangered and 19 vulnerable. The near- and off-shore
waters support at least five species of globally threatened coastal marine cetaceans.
The area is important for a wide variety of waterfowl and shorebirds with more than
200 species of common residents, and a variety of common and rare migratory birds
that visit the site for resting, roosting, feeding and wintering and to use the site as a
staging ground during migration (NSP, 2006).
Himchari National Park located south of Cox’s Bazaar, comprises 1,729.00 acres
of evergreen/deciduous forest was declared in 1980 as a protected area for
conservation, research, education and recreation. The habitat comprises lush tropical
rain forest, grasslands and features a number of waterfalls, the biggest of which
cascades down toward the sandy, sun-drenched beach and into the BOB. Himchari is
home to a limited number of these majestic animals like the Asian Elephant
(Elephas maximus), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak). Other mammals include
Rhesus Macaque, Leopard Cat, Fishing Cat, and Wild Boar. Additionally the Himchari
National Park is home to more than 150 bird species, 56 species of reptiles and 13
amphibian species (Hossain, 2001).
Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area in the Cox's Bazaar District
comprising a hill forest area of 11,615 ha (44.85 sq. mi.). In the east it is bordered
by the Naaf River and in the west by the Bay of Bengal. It was established in 1983 as
Teknaf Game Reserve under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment)
Act, 1974, later declared as Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary in 2009. This is one of the few
places in Bangladesh where Asian elephants can be seen in the wild. This vast sub-
tropical forest has several other attractions like Nitong Hill, Kudum Cave, Kuthi
Hill, etc. The popular Toinga Peak has an elevation of about 1000 feet (MoEF,
2001a). This sanctuary is rich in biodiversity. The coastal area comprises several
habitat types - wide sandy beach, rocky inter-tidal zone, and mudflats which are
important for the migratory and resident waterfowl, nesting site for the endangered
marine turtles, host to several species of crabs, rocky shores act as vanguard against
erosion of the coastline, etc. The coastal area is heavily exploited by the shrimp
nurseries and fishermen. Recent Rohingya influx has virtually inflicted
devastating impact on the forest biodiversity and coastal resources.
4.1.3 Biodiversity of St. Martin Island
Biodiversity is a collective term. Generally, it refers to the variety of living species that
can be found in a particular area: region, ecosystem, planet, etc. Coral reefs are

29
believed by many to have the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem on the planet even
more than a tropical rainforest. Occupying less than one percent of the ocean floor,
coral reefs are home to more than twenty-five percent of marine life (Hossain, 2020).
The biodiversity of Bangladesh's lone coral island St Martin's is being destroyed
by businesses related to tourism, thousands of tourists pouring in every day, and
illegal infrastructure. Unplanned infrastructure has mushroomed in the island to meet
the onrush of tourists. Researchers and environmentalists said high population density,
huge illegal infrastructure built in an unplanned manner, destruction of mangrove
plants and bushes, collection of sea shells and stones, unplanned development of
tourism, visit by a huge number of tourists, and dumping of garbage were threatening
the island.
A total of 234 species of fish have been recorded from the St Martin Island. Of which,
98 species are coral associated. The total number of recorded mollusc and crab species
stands at 187 and 7 species respectively. A total of 66 coral species were recorded, of
which 19 are fossil corals, 36 living corals and the rest are under 6 families of subclass
Octocorallia (soft corals). A total of 14 species of algae have been recorded from the St.
Martin's Island. There is an estimated amount of 1500 MT red sea weed bio- mass
available around the St. Martin's Island(Hossain & Islam, 2006). During our visit, we
notice there are about more than 100+ small and medium size hotels and restaurant in
the island; among them only 20±2 legally authorized large residential hotels, 100
cottage resorts and 50 restaurants on the island. There is an estimated amount of 1500
MT red sea weed biomass available around the St. Martin's Island.

Fig 16: Fish Biodiversity in Saint Martin's Island

The island contains some of the most unique, benthic community associations in
Bangladesh, not found anywhere else in the South Asian region. The unique marine
communities have very high scientific value for research and monitoring and there are
only a few examples worldwide, where coral-algal communities dominate rocky reefs.

30
The economy of the island is based on fishing. It is estimated that, about 1650 MT of
fish are caught annually.
Table 1: Number of Fish, Mollusks, Crabs and Echinoderms recorded in St. Martin
Island

Fish and Mollusks Crabs Echinoderms

Fishery
Name of Relative
species abundance
A total of 234 154 species of Ocypoda Very A total of 9
species of fish Mollusks in 74 ceratopthalma Common species
in 85 families genera, 42 belonging to
representing families and 11 Portunes Common eight genera in
14 orders and orders under 3 sanguinolentu four classes of
2 classes have classes were s phylum
been reported from Echinodermata
identified, of the St. Marin's Thalamita Common were recorded
which only 16 Island. crenata from the
are freshwater Tomascik island.
species of the (1997) recorded Charybdis Fairly
fishes, 98 all these and a cruciata Common
species are fourth
coral unidentified Dotilla Fairly
associated. species from myctiroides Common
The most the island. The
abundant coral total number of Paramelthora Few
or reef- recorded x aculeatus
associated fish mollusk species
Atergatis Few
are from the St.
integerrimus.
damselfish, Martin's Island
parrotfish, stands at 187
surgeonfish, species of 93
dogfishes, genera, 51
groupers, families, 11
snappers, orders and 3
emperors, and classes.
butterfly fish. Nevertheless, it
appears that
both the lists
are incomplete
and many more
molluscan taxa
await discover.

31
 Fig 17: Jellyfish

Fig 18: Keya Trees of Saint Martin’s Island

A total of 66 scleractinian coral species were recorded belonging to 22 genera. The
subtidal rocky habitat also supports a low diversity coral reef-associated fauna and
flora; ‘Red seaweed’ biomass available around St. Martin's Island. According to
published reports, there are 185 species including 80 genera occurring on Bangladesh
coast belonging to benthic marine algae among which 56 species and 40 genera
belonging to red algae group. But there are many species of seaweeds yet to be
reported. According to Rahman (1999), a total of 14 species (5 species of Chlorophyta,

32
5 species of Phaeophyta, and 4 species of Rhodophyta) were recorded from the studied
area of the St. Martin's Island, of which 9 species were identified at the species level
and the rest at the genus level (Ali and M, 2001).
Table 2: Different types of Corals found in St. Martin Island

Fossil Corals (Dead Living Corals Soft Corals

corals)
A total of 19 species in 9 A total of 36 species in 16
genera and 4 families of genera of 7 reef-building
fossil (dead) corals were coral families (Order.
collected and identified Scleractinia) were
from the island. The collected
genera are: and identified from the
Acropora, Cyphastrea, island. However,
Favia, Favites, Galaxea, Tomascik
Goniastrea, Goniopora, (1997) found 65 species
Montipora and Porites. of
However, many of them 22 genera in 10 families
do not represent the real from St. Martin's Island.
reef forming species. According to Tomascik
(1997) the genera Porites,
Favites, Cyphastrea
Gonipora and Gonlastrea
were the most abundant.
Soft corals belong to the
Sub-class Octocorallia.
Taxonomy of soft corals
is
difficult and needs
specialist
attention. Presence of a
community off the east
coast
of St. Martin's Island is a
unique feature of the island.
The dominant families of
soft corals on the island are
the following six families.
A. Gorgonian sea fans,
Acanthogorgidae.

Seagrass are marine flowering plants but are not true grass (family. Poaceae). There are
about 50 recognized species placed in 12 genera reported globally and they grow
completely submerged (hydrophytic adaptions). In Bangladesh, Halodule uninervis
has been reported from littoral zone around St. Martin's Island (Hossain, 2020).
Table 3: Seagrass species found in St. Martin Island

Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Rhodophyta

Halimeda discoidea Hydroclathrus clathratus Hypnea cornuta

Halimeda opuntia Dictyota dichotoma Agardh

Lamouroux Lamouroux Hypnea sp.

Caulerpa recemosa Dictyota cilolate Amphiroa fragilissima

Agardh sp. Padina sp. Lamouroux

Codium sp. Sargassum sp. Jania adherens

33
 Ulva sp.

4.2 Threats to the Biodiversity of the Visited Area

Bangladesh has the highest rural population densities in the world with the lowest per
capita forest land. The contribution of the forestry sector to GDP is 3.3%
at current prices and about 2% of the country’s labor forces are employed in this sector.
Officially, although Bangladesh has nearly about 17.5% forest coverage but only 6% of
they are well stocked. Besides, the annual deforestation rate in the country is 3.3%
which is the highest among the south-east Asian countries. In recent days, although
the government has become anxious about biodiversity conservation but country’s
forests and biodiversity are still facing various challenges like other regions of the
world (MoEF, 2001b).
Degradation and destruction of habitat by human settlement, agricultural expansion,
road networks, and shifting cultivation are the major issues for the conservation of
biodiversity in Southeastern Bangladesh. Following are some major reasons behind
biodiversity depletion in Bangladesh:
1. Population Pressure: The population of Bangladesh has been increased more than 2
times after Independence. More population means more consumption of natural
resources leading to degradation of flora and fauna habitat. Habitat degradation due to a
growing population is much sharper in Bangladesh because the improvement in the
standard of living and quality of life of the people exerts greater pressure on
environmental resources.
2. Jhoom (Shifting Cultivation): Shifting cultivation goes with primitive economies
and isolated cultural communities in the hilly areas of Bangladesh. Shifting cultivation
is characterized by a rotation of fields rather than by crops, accompanied by slash and
burning (Khisa and Mohiuddin 2015). In a situation of little or no population or market
pressure, shifting cultivation is environmentally acceptable. But, with a developing
market economy and the inevitable population pressure on land, the shifting cultivation
collapsed into degradation and retrogression, influenced by factors both internal and
external to the system. About 40,000 families are engaged in shifting cultivation
covering an area of about 40,000 ha (Khisa and Mohiuddin 2015) of the hill forests
reserves of Bangladesh. Different ethnic groups of CHT were traditionally used to live
in harmony with forests through protecting and consuming them. Unfortunately, such
traditional practices have been lost and a more commercial approach to forest
exploitation has led to large-scale deforestation in Bangladesh over the last few
decades. Clearing of natural vegetation for cultivation of banana, pineapple, ginger and
turmeric along the slopes has a negative effect, which increases soil erosion in the hilly
areas.
3. Extensive Cultivation: Increased demand of food supply for large population is
causing conversion of natural ecosystems into other land covers. Intensive cultivation
for meeting the additional requirements leads to soil erosion and loss of fertility,
encroachment and degradation of forest, siltation and flooding in river basins, changes
34
in microclimate and loss of habitat. On the other hand, cultivation in the low-lying
areas severely disturbs traditional habitat of fish and other aquatic fauna. In CHT,
horticulture is gaining popularity in forestlands with intensive cultivation of few crops,
e.g. mango, litchi, orange etc.
4. Climate Change: Biodiversity and ecosystems are already more stressed than at any
comparable period of human history. Climate change is causing many species to shift
their geographical ranges, distributions, regeneration and phenologies at faster rates
than previously thought. Climate change induced modifications in forestry increased
the frequency and intensity of forest fire, outbreaks of insects and pathogens, and
extreme events, as high wind etc. However, climate change can also accelerate
vegetation growth caused by a warmer climate, longer growth seasons and elevated
atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
5. Natural Calamities: Bangladesh is the landing station of tropical cyclones. In
addition, flood, tidal surges, intrusion of salinity, land slide, erosion and accretion in
river bank and coastal areas also responsible for the loss of biodiversity in Bangladesh.
6. Wrong Management Practices: Clear felling followed by artificial regeneration is a
long practiced silvicultural system in the hill forests by Bangladesh Forest Department.
It is very much detrimental to the existing biodiversity predominantly floral diversity as
it involves slash and burn of the natural vegetation, clearing of the forest floor, increase
surface runoff of water and soil erosion, introduction of single or few species instead of
diverse plant species.
7. Tobacco Cultivation: Extension of tobacco cultivation in Lama, Ali Kadam and
Naikhongchhari upazila of Bandarban district, and recently in Khagrachari and
Rangamati has also contributed towards deforestation in two ways: through bringing
fringe forest lands under tobacco cultivation and, supplying fuel wood for tobacco
curing from adjacent forests. Tobacco is also responsible for the erosion of agro-
biodiversity in their cultivation areas.
8. Brick Fields: Brick fields in and around the vicinity of forests have been identified
as one of the notorious causes of deforestation and biodiversity loss. Brick fields in the
vicinity of forests have caused not only deforestation, but it has also caused
environmental degradation of the biological production systems. Farmers of many areas
reported that their fruit production in the areas had declined because of smoke
originating from the brick fields. Moreover, the energy used for burning bricks comes
mostly from woody biomass of the forests.
9. Land Use Change: Land transfers have taken place where forested land get diverted
for human settlement, development of industry, fishery, irrigation, energy and power,
mining, tourism, educational institutions and Bangladesh army, navy and air force. The
extent of such transfers of forest lands was about 20,016 ha.
10. Roads and Rail Lines Through Forests: Communication networks through
forests fragmented the natural habitats of both flora and fauna in Chittagong, Cox’s

35
Bazar and CHTs. Road construction or development of communication systems
through forests or protected areas facilitates encroachment and extraction of resources
from the forests. Such networks also restrict wildlife into limited area and often killing
of those during crossing the roads.
11. Uncontrolled Tourism: Unplanned and uncontrolled tourism is becoming a major
threat for the degradation of biodiversity hot spots. The biodiversity of St. Martin‘s
Island and Chittagong Hill Tracts have been facing continuous threat from unmanaged
or poorly managed tourism industry. The authorities don’t bother about the carrying
capacity of the tourist spots.
4.3 Impact of the Tourism on Regional Biodiversity
Tourism especially, marine and coastal tourism is one the fastest growing areas within
the world's largest industry. Negative impacts from tourism occur when the level of
visitor use is greater than the environment's ability to cope with this use within
acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats
to the natural tourist places of southeastern Bangladesh. It can put enormous pressure
on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharges into
the sea, natural habitat loss, increased pressure on endangered species and heightened
vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on water resources, and it can force
local populations to compete for the use of critical resources.
Identifying Saint Martin’s as an ecologically endangered area, the government has
decided to conserve the biodiversity of the country’s lone coral island by undertaking a
number of initiatives to discourage commercial tourism in the island. Reportedly, the
government is going  to take immediate steps to regulate the rampant entry of tourists
in the Island. Small St. Martin's Island has seen a massive increase in tourism over the
last few years and the weak ecosystem on the island is not well equipped to handle it.
Corals and sea turtles are the main biodiversity of St. Martin's Island and these are
threatened due to tourism, fishing and other anthropogenic activities. Unplanned
infrastructure mushroomed in the island to meet the onrush of tourists has become a
potential threat for the existence of the island. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses
potential threats to environment.  It needs no mentioning that unregulated tourism can
negatively affect wildlife, plants and natural ecosystems through habitat destruction,
pollution, over-exploitation of natural resources and so on(NSP, 2006).
A number of new tourist spots are emerging in the hill and beach areas of Chattogram
and Cox’s Bazar. Various infrastructures have been developed in these areas
endangering the environment and biodiversity. Biodiversity and habitats of these areas
are being destroyed as a result of deforestation and construction of infrastructure to
facilitate the recreation of tourists. Tourism's relationship with the environment is
complex. It involves many activities that can have adverse environmental effects. Many
of these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructures such as
roads, resorts, hotels and restaurants. The negative impacts of tourism development can
gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. Tourism

36
development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases consumption in
areas where resources are already scarce (Ali and M, 2001).
4.4 Recommendations to Improve the Conditions/Problems
The sustainable tourism in Bangladesh can indorse through the promotion of national
strategies for decentralization of sustainable tourism, the hold up for deliberate and
community inventiveness’s; and the promotion of sustainable tourism at the
international level. It should be lucid by now that even ecotourism activities can cause
adverse ecological impacts, particularly if they are not properly managed or if they
involve tourist numbers beyond the local carrying capacity. The steps need to be
followed unsustainable tourisms from tourism operators, local government, tourism
organizations, community groups, parks managers, indigenous community or
enterprise, regional development organizations, interpretations officers and everyone.
Sustainable tourism initiatives that facilitate direct and protect key natural and cultural
heritage assets. The following recommendation for improving the current tourism
induced problems and reducing environmental impacts in Southeastern Bangladesh-

 Impact of tourism to the local community should be carried to assess the

vulnerability of the surrounding community.
 Reasons for mangrove deforestation, land reclamations and siltation. Short-term
economic gains from the development of these areas are obviously preferred
over the long-term benefits of the conservation of ecology.
 Water sports, beach driving, beach accommodation is also causing serious
problem to the natural environment as well as for tourism and these should be
stopped. Beach wastes including plastics and other wastes are causing very
serious problems; an urgent action plan is needed immediately to mimic the
problems.
 A monitoring system to ensure the effectiveness of coastal and environmental
regulations.
 The disposal of wastes solid, semi solid of non-biodegradable was then a
serious problem and that there was need for education to increase environmental
awareness, and for the use of re-cycling technology.
 Garbage from tourist resorts should be disposed of in a manner that would not
cause any damage to the environment. All garbage disposed into the sea should
be done as far away into the sea as necessary in order to ensure that it does not
get washed onto any islands with the current.
 Sound environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels
can increase benefits to natural areas. But this requires careful planning for
controlled development, based on analysis of the environmental resources of the
area.
 Cleaner production techniques can be important tools for planning and
operating tourism facilities in a way that minimizes their environmental
impacts. For example, green building (using energy-efficient and non-polluting
construction materials, sewage systems and energy sources) is an increasingly

37
 important way for the tourism industry to decrease its impact on the
environment.
 Regulatory measures help offset negative impacts; for instance, controls on the
number of tourist activities and movement of visitors within protected areas can
limit impacts on the ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and vitality of
the site. Such limits can also reduce the negative impacts on resources.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE: COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF
BANGLADESH
5.1 Coastal Environmental Features of Cox’s Bazar
The Cox’s Bazar coastal plain is located at the south eastern corner of Bangladesh
(Figure-1). It is bound on the east by low hill ranges (elevations of about 100 meters),
on the west by Bay of Bengal, on the north by the Bakkhali estuary and Maheshkhali
channel and on the south by the headlands. The land appears as a bulge towards the
Bay, with a wide base of approximately 20 km in north-south direction and gradually
narrows down to about 3km at the seaward end. The area is directly exposed to the long
shore current and periodic tidal oscillations with occasional wash over by cyclonic
strom surges (Chowdhury, 1998).
Landform Types
On the basis of surfacial forms the coastal plain can be broadly divided initially in to-
two: (1) the flood plain and (2) the beach plain. The beach plain unit can be further
subdivided into: dunes, tidal creeks and beach. Figure-20 is aschematic cross-section of
the coastal plain which is a synthesis of geomorphic features, their dimentions and
spatial distribution. The spatial extent of the various landform units identified are given
in Table 4 and their important characteristics are referred in Table 5.

39
 Fig 19: Landforms of Cox’s Bazar

Fig 20: Schematic cross-section of the Cox’s Bazar coastal plain

The floodplain unit of the coastal plain is located closest to the T ertiary hills and in
between the hills and the beach plain. It is elongated in shape and covers an area of
9.30 km2. The area lies at a lower elevation than the dunes of the beach plain (this in
the order of 1 to 2 meters) and gently slopes towards the sea. The floodplain is
connected to the sea by narrow outlets of the coastal channels and tidal creeks
(Chowdhury, 1998).
Table 4: Areal extent of landform types based on 1995 aerial photographs

Features Area (km2)

Tertiary hills 3.90
Piedmont plain 1.40
Valley floor 0.24
Flood plain 9.30
Dune 1.60
Beach 2.60
Estuarine plain 8.10
Mud flat 0.53
Spit 0.77
Sand bar 0.14
Water bodies 0.09
Estuary/Channel/Tidal creeks 3.00

The beach plain covers an area of 2.60km2, is also an elongated piece of land. It is
elevated at their landward parts and gradually slope towards the sea. The elevation of
the marginal parts of this plain is of the order of 2 to 3m above mean sea level and
these areas are covered by dunes.
Table 5: Landform characteristics of the Cox’s Bazar coastal plain

Feature Height Slope Shape Processes Width

(metre)

40
 Flood 5 ∠1˚ Flat and Mainly fluvial origin, <5-
plain occasionally flash flood and >3km
dissected by occasional marine
rills washover, minor rills
are common.
Dunes 3-4 >10˚ Undulating, Mainly wave and wind Highly
develops controlled. While wind variabl
parallel to the
accumulates sand, e
flood plain waves rework on it.
Wind generated sand
ripples are common.
Beach 2-3 4˚-6˚ Concave Wave and wind actions
shape, are predominant with
controlled by occasional strom surge <200m
to
wave action induced flooding.
>500m

Mudflat ≤1 ∠1˚ Flat, gently

Subject to erosion and 50-
merges with accretion through 200m
estuaries/open
regular tidal action and
seas. preiodically
submerged.
Spit 1-2 Most Convex Exposed to wave and <50m
cases seaward with wind action and from
steeep, a ridge submerged to high the
varies spring tide. ridge
from
2˚>4˚
Tidal 0.5-1.5 Slopes Concave Limited wave action <10m
creek gently valley floor, and exposed to regular to
down sea- gently tidal exchange. 150m
ward progress
seaward.

The beach is a flat piece of land tilted in the direction of the sea, located at the land-
water interface, is an accumulation of varied types of sediment, usually of sand size or
above. At the mean sea level the width of the beach is 200-300m. In most parts of the
beach plain, dunes and beach are located side by side but occasionally these two units
are separated by tidal creeks. Tidal creeks are shallow and wide channels with variable
depths and widths ranging from 1-1.5 and 50-100m respectively. Degree of tidal
intrusion into the tidal creeks are dependent upon the incoming tidal level, and the
elevation of the creek bottom. In most low water levels, these creeks are dry and are
submerged under high tides only. Another characteristic features of the beach plain is

41
that it ends with a spit. The total area of spits are about 0.77km 2 and in most cases the
spits are wide at the base end and narrow at distal end (Chowdhury, 1998).
The area covered by dunes is about 1.60km2, with a maximum width of approximately
200m. It lies in a north-south direction, and almost parallel to the beach plain (Table-
2). The boundary between the dunes and the uppar beaches is dynamic due to regular
interactions between these two geomorphic units indeed primarily by the wind and also
by the intensity of creeper vegetation ‘ganga lata’. The dunes are intersected by shallow
channels which can be termed as dune valleys. These microvalleys are formed by the
wave actions during extraordinary high seas. These dunes themselves are also products
of high seas, at times of stroms, but unlike dune valeys, these are depositional features,
formed by erosion of previously formed dunes.
Dunes are highly suceptible to coastal hazards, such as strom surge, spring tide,
cyclonic wind etc. where dune yields to these hazards. However, they can recover in a
matter of 3 to 6 months. The mechanism of rebuilding starts with formation of a nuclei
around a ‘ganga lata’ which then acts as a trap for airborn sediments and undergoes
exponential growth (Lindek, 2003).
5.2 Livelihood of the coastal people of Cox’s Bazar and Saint Martin’s Island
Coastal livelihood groups are those who earn their living from activities defined by
coastal conditions. They often vary from each other in terms of production relations
and marketing. Some work independently (fry collector), some work as lessee or
sharecropper (salt farmer, shrimp farmer) and some are contractual laborer (fisher hired
by a bahadder). Some live on exploitation of natural resources (salt farmer, fry
collector, fisher, honey collector) and some live on skill-based human resources (boat-
building carpentry, net making). Profiles of some livelihood groups in the coastal zones
of Cox’s Bazar and Saint Martin’s Island are briefly presented below:
a. Fishers: In the coastal zone, fishing is the predominant source of livelihood for 14
percent farm households. They operate in the estuary, on coastal waters and sometimes
in the deep sea. Though fishers are also farmers (in the sense of owning cultivable
land), the majority of them are small farmers.10 Among the fishers, 80 percent are self-
employed, nine percent are wage laborers and 11 percent are unpaid family helpers.
b. Shrimp cultivation: Shrimp cultivation are also of importance in the zone. Only a
small percentage of better off households have such businesses, however they are a
source of labour income for poorer households.
c. Salt farmer: Salt farming is overwhelmingly concentrated in Cox’s Bazar district
where 15 percent of total rural households of the district are salt farmers. They meet
bulk of the demand for raw salt in the country. As of June 2003, 38,328 salt farmers
operated on 23,735 ha of land in Cox’s Bazar. Moheshkhali upazila has the highest
concentration of salt farmers. Their number is 10,118 and they operate on one-third of
the total land area under salt farming in Cox’s Bazar. Salt farmers are mostly poor and
operate on a small scale. Their average size of farm is 0.62 ha. They work under

42
adverse conditions. This is a hardworking job that interests only the poor and the
landless. Many of them lease in land from others. They are in close proximity to the
open sea and often face all the hazards coming from the sea. Sometimes the whole
output is washed away by heavy rain and storm surge because of lack of storage
facility.
d. Small Farmers: Food cropping is present, but makes only a minor contribution to
the zone, and is found in isolated pockets on the east side of the peninsula near the Naf
river. Food crops cultivated include rice, potato, beans and vegetables, garlic and
ginger. Unlike most other parts of Bangladesh, livestock ownership is scarce with
limitations in land holding sizes restricting the availability of grazing land and the lack
of rice production means that straw or fodder is minimal.
e. Tourism related occupations: Following the construction of a new road connecting
Cox’s Bazar and Teknaf along the western side of the peninsula, land prices are
increasing in that area. Land is being sold by better off to external investors seeking to
construct hotels, resorts and restaurants aimed at domestic tourists. Most households
livelihood in the area of Cox’s Bazar and Saint Martin’s Island are somewhat related
with the increasing tourism.
5.3 Peninsula and Teknaf Peninsula
5.3.1 Peninsula
A peninsula is a piece of land that is almost entirely surrounded by water but is
connected to the mainland on one side. Peninsulas can be very small, sometimes only
large enough for a single lighthouse, for instance. Lighthouses often sit on peninsulas
near rocky coastlines to warn sailors that they are getting close to land. Peninsulas can
also be very large. Most of the U.S. state of Florida is a peninsula that separates the
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.
Peninsulas are found on every continent. In North America, the narrow peninsula of
Baja California, in Mexico, separates the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Cortez, also
called the Gulf of California. In Europe, the nations of Portugal and Spain make up the
Iberian Peninsula. The so-called Horn of Africa, which juts into the Arabian Sea on
central Africas east coast, is a huge peninsula. The nations of North Korea and South
Korea make up the Korean Peninsula in eastern Asia. In Australia, the Cape York
Peninsula is only 160 kilometers (99 miles) from the island of New Guinea. The
Antarctic Peninsula seems to point to the tip of South America, several hundred
kilometers (miles) away.
5.3.2 Teknaf peninsula
The term physiography includes the combination of the geological material in which
particular kinds of soils have formed and the landscape on which they occur.
Bangladesh has been divided into 34 physiographic units and subunits (FAO-UNDP
1998). Physiographically, the Teknaf peninsula mainly comprises: (i) hills, (ii)
piedmont plain, (iii) tidal floodplain, and (iv) beach, with a minor area of coral beach.
These areas cover approximately 80% of the total landmass.

43
a. Hills: The hill area covers 14,602 ha, accounting for 41.8% of the total area.
According to its height and morphology, the hill area can be divided into two types:
mediumhigh hills and medium-low hills. The area of medium-high hills is
approximately 6940 ha, and the heights of the hills range from 150 to 300 m. The
slopes of these hills range from steep (30–50% slopes) to excessively steep (>70%
slopes). The hill ranges, which are interrupted by streams and valleys, are oriented from
north to south, and they developed over sedimentary rocks. The area of medium-low
hills, which developed over soft sedimentary rocks, is 7436  ha, and the hill heights are
less than 150 m. The slopes range from excessively steep by steep to slightly steep
(<5% slopes). Erosion is very common in steep to very steep areas, while it is less
common in flatter areas. Deep soils only developed in flatter areas. Narrow and broad
ridges are found alongside the low hills.

Figure 21: Topographic map of Teknaf Peninsula (by contour line)

b. Piedmont plain: The piedmont plain covers 3034 ha (8.6% of the total area). It is
situated alongside the hills, mainly on their western side, but is found sporadically on
the eastern and south sides of the hills. The landscape is a nearly level high ridge,
which is subject to flash floods during the rainy season.
c. Tidal floodplain: The tidal floodplain, which runs from north to south through the
peninsula, comprises 6838 ha of land (19.57% of the total area). This is located
between the hills and the Naf River (on the eastern side of the hills). The area consists
of broad, high, and low ridges and depressions. Numerous canals divide the landscape,
some of which are subjected to tidal flooding. During the rainy season, most of the

44
areas become mildly inundated with rainwater and occasionally suffer flash floods
during heavy rainfall.
d. Beach: Beaches cover 9.03% (3155 ha) of the total area, and they lie on the west
side of the peninsula along the sea. The landscape is mostly flat with some undulating
relief consisting of sandy soil. The coral beach is a minor area (1%) that is located
approximately 12 km from the mainland. It is located on St. Martin’s Coral Island. The
landscape consists of very gently undulating old beach ridges and inter-ridge
depressions, which are surrounded by sandy beaches.
5.4 Definition of Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA), List of the ECAs of
Bangladesh, Number of ECAs in Our Visited Places and Their Present Conditions
5.4.1 Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA)
The Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) is an environmentally protected zone where the
ecosystem is considered to be endangered to reach a critical condition by the changes
brought through various human activities. Section 2(gg) of the Bangladesh
Environment Conservation (Amendment) Act (2010) provides that “Ecologically
critical Area” means such area which is rich in unique biodiversity or due to the
importance of environmental perspective necessary to protect or conserve from
destructive activities. ECA also falls within the category of natural and cultural
heritage.
5.4.2 List of Ecologically Critical Areas of Bangladesh
Within a relatively small geographic boundary Bangladesh enjoys a diverse array of
ecosystems and biodiversity. Bangladesh supports a wide range of ecosystems which
can be categorized as i) Terrestrial ecosystem: forest and hilly ecosystem, agro-
ecosystem, homestead ecosystem; and ii) Aquatic ecosystem: seasonal and perennial
wetlands, rivers, lakes, coastal mangroves, estuarine, coastal mudflats, chars and
marine ecosystem. Bangladesh supports a rich floral and faunal diversity in its unique
geo-physical location, tropical climate and fertile land mass. The country has
approximately 5000 species of flora while its faunal diversity consists of nearly 1600
species.
At first in 1992 National Conservation Strategy of Bangladesh has identified 31 areas
of Bangladesh as Environmentally Critical Area. In 1995 after the enactment of the
Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995 the Government is empowered to
declare an area which is enriched with unique biodiversity and environmentally
significant and shall need protection or conservation from destructive activities as
ecologically critical area (ECA). When the government i.e. the Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF) thinks that due to environmental degradation the
ecosystem of an area is in a critical situation or is threatened to be in such situation can
declare such area as an ECA by issuing notification in the official Gazette. In the
Gazette notification, the boundary and legal description including map of the area
concerned shall be mentioned and all these map and legal description shall be displayed
in the concerned area and it shall be considered as document in the said area. The
Government take management plan for the said area after declaring it as ECA and shall
immediately take necessary measures to overcome such critical situation.

45
The Government after considering the human habitat, ancient monument, archeological
site, forest sanctuary, national park, game reserve, wild animals' habitat, wetland,
mangrove, forest area, biodiversity and other relevant factors of the area can declare as
ECA. As per the legal mandate the MoEF till now declared 12 areas as ECA.
Department of Environment (DoE) as a statutory body is entrusted to manage the
ECAs. Following are the description of ECAs:
Table 6: Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA) of Bangladesh
Name of ECA Ecosystem Location Area (ha.) Declaration
type date

01 Sundarbans (10 km Coastal- Bagerhat, 292,926 1999

landward Marine Khulna and
periphery) Satkhira
02 Cox’s Bazar- Coastal- Cox’s Bazar 20,373 1999
Teknaf Peninsula Marine
03 St. Martin’ Island Marine Cox’s Bazar 1,214 1999
Island with
Coral reefs
04 Sonadia Island Marine Cox’s Bazar 10,298 1999
Island
05 Hakaluki Haor Inland Fresh Sylhet and 40,466 1999
Water Moulavibaza
Wetland r
06 Tanguar Haor Inland Fresh Sunamganj 9,797 1999
Water
Wetland
07 Marjat Baor Ox-bow Jhenaidah 325 1999
Lake
08 Gulshan-Baridhara Urban Dhaka City 101 2001
Lake Wetland
09 Buriganga River Around 1336 2009
Dhaka
10 Turag River Around 1184 2009
Dhaka
11 Sitalakhya River Around 3771 2009
Dhaka
12 Balu including River Around 1315 2009
Tongi canal Dhaka
13 Jaflong-Dawki River Jaflong, 1493 2015
Sylhet
Source: Department of Environment (2015)

46
The Government in the Gazette notification prohibited some activities or processes,
which cannot be initiated or continued in an ECA, including- felling or collecting trees;
hunting, catching or killing wild animal; industrial establishment; fishing and other
activities those are harmful for aquatic life; polluting water by disposing waste; and any
other activity that could destroy or change the natural characteristics of soil and water.
Continuing any such activities or processes in the ECA will be punishable with
imprisonment up to 2 years, or fine up to taka 2 lac for the first offence; for the
repetition of the same offence s/he will be punishable with imprisonment up to 10 years
or a fine up to taka 10 lac. Establishment of brick kiln in or within minimum 1
kilometer distance from the boundaries of any ECA is also prohibited and punishable.
Generations after generations lives and livelihoods in Bangladesh depended primarily
on natural resources based on diverse ecosystems. Diversity of ecosystems is under
serious threat and tremendous pressure because of changing climate and anthropogenic
disturbance in environmental flourishing. Maintaining the diversity of biological
resources will ensure the future sustainability of this populous nation. In this context, it
is essential to demonstrate the linkages between ecosystem services, livelihoods and
socio-economic structures. Through the collective efforts and engagement of all
stakeholders, especially the policymakers, the value of diverse ecosystems can be
integrated into the national accounting system. Involvement of local communities in
preventing over-exploitation of biological resources is essential to ensure long-term
sustainability of conservation initiatives.
5.4.3 Number of ECAs in our visited places and their present conditions
There are two ECAs fall in our visited places-
 Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf beach
 St. Martin’s Island
Present Condition of Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf Beach: The Teknaf Peninsula is a long,
narrow and forested peninsula rising to 300 meters above sea level and separating the
Bay of Bengal from the lower reaches and estuary of the Naaf River. The western shore
of the peninsula is a sandy beach extending for over 75 km in a single stretch, and
averaging about 160m in width at high tide. Sand flats up to 2 km in width and patches
of dead coral and boulders are exposed at low tide. The beach extends from Cox’s
Bazar to Badar Mokam at Teknaf region and is sometimes interrupted by the shallow
estuaries of streams and rivers coming out of the hills behind it. A number of rivers and
streams exit from the watershed areas of the hills in the background and drain into the
sea. In several areas, water rolls through dissected rocky valleys to the sea forming
waterfalls. Exposed boulders consisting of even bedded siltstones and shales embedded
to shallow marine beds. All the rivers and streams falling into the Bay of Bengal are
tidal up to a considerable length inland. Teknaf may represent the longest continuous
uninterrupted beach in the world with tropical rain forest in the background. Along
with this rich tropical forest diversity, the area acts as a corridor between the terrestrial
and marine biodiversity (Hossain, 2001).
The following have been identified as key causes of biodiversity loss at the Cox’s
Bazar-Teknaf beach:
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  No legally instituted protection measures for ecologically critical areas.
 No effective management authority at field-level.
 Limited participation by local communities in resource use decision-making.
 Inadequate information on status and functioning of critical ecosystems.
 No management planning for ecologically critical areas.
 Limited opportunities for alternative sustainable livelihoods.
 Lack of alternative sources of fuel wood and fodder.
 No integrated coastal zone management.
 Limited public awareness of environmental issues.
 Lack of technical knowledge, capacities.
 Conversion of critical habitats to alternative land uses, e.g., agriculture, salt
pans, tourism infrastructure, small-scale industrial enterprises.
 Pollution and land degradation from agro-chemicals, boat operational
discharges, tourism, small industries.
 Destruction of sand dunes (turtle nesting habitat) by human activities
(construction of temporary shelters by fishermen, vehicle traffic and boat
docking).
 Beach compaction by vehicles.

Present Condition of St. Martin’s Island: St. Martin’s island had until recently been
considered by the scientific and conservation community as the only “coral island” of
the country. However, recent studies have concluded that the island itself is a
sedimentary island, consisting of continental base rocks which coral communities have
colonized due to favorable ecological conditions.
It was very obvious that the island has lost its capacity to hold so many tourists and
hotel and shipping related activities. Ever increasing population and careless tourism
has been pointed out as number one problem which is putting a lot of stress on the
resources of the island and on the fragile coral ecosystem which shelters a diverse
variety of marine biodiversity which is not found anywhere else in Bangladesh. St
Martin’s Island includes a cluster of islands. To save coral islands which benefit us in
so many ways, the governments of the world must reduce carbon-dioxide emissions
and create more marine parks (Iftekhar, 2006).
Scientists have said that St. Martin’s is getting smaller every year instead of growing
geologically as it should. The increasing cyclones and erosion of coral are held
responsible. If St. Martin’s vanish what will happen to its population we do not know.
As sea turtles die in numbers it is an indication that all is not well. Coral reefs are
particularly susceptible to human activities because most corals reefs occur in shallow
water near shore where human impacts are the greatest. The following have been
identified as key causes of biodiversity loss at the St. Martin’s Island:

 Sewage and chemical pollution from fertilizer runoff lead to coral destruction.
At present most sewage from hotels is piped into the sea.
 Constructions of buildings and hotels.

48
  Algae and sea grass removal
 Mangrove, sand dunes and hills are being cut down and destroyed.
 The island dependent on generators produces heavy pollution and continuous
loud sound which threaten marine life.
 Over fishing, destructive fishing practices including use of cyanide and
dynamite. The sea is often invaded by foreign fishing trawlers. The fishing net
catches turtle and instead of freeing them which is cumbersome the turtles are
killed.
 Coral extraction under sea for building materials and for souvenir trade
 Ocean warming and rising carbon dioxide. Global warming increases
temperature in the sea and harms Zooxanthellae algae on which hard corals
depend.
 Loss of habitat and sanctuary for marine life dependent on the island’s
ecosystem.
 Scarcity of drinkable water for local people and fresh water for ecosystem
survival.
 Sedimentation due to construction, farming and deforestation blanket the coral
reefs, smothering the coral resulting in blocking the sunlight required for
photosynthesis by the symbiotic algae.
 Trash in water cause destruction of the reefs by blocking sunlight. Sea turtles
and other marine animals may eat plastic taking it for jelly fish eventually die.
Discarded fishing nets snag on the reefs and strangle thousands of marine life.
5.5 Formation of Saint Martin’s Island and its Major Environmental Features
5.5.1 Formation of St. Martin’s Island
The geological structure of St. Martin’s island is simple and is represented by an
anticlinal uplift. A little of the axis of the anticline is traceable along the west coast of
Dakshinpara. The exposed portion of the axis runs NNW to SSE, approximately
parallel to the island. There is a fault along the northwestern shoreline with a trend
nearly parallel to the axis. St Martin's limestone is composed of molluscan coquina
horizons (shelly limestone) and coral clusters (coralline limestones). Being very porous
and permeable, the shelly limestone provides an excellent aquifer wherever they occur
beneath the alluvium. Recent marine sands and the shelly limestone are the chief source
of fresh water (Kabir, 2006).
Several living small coral colonies are found in small sheltered pools very near the low
tide level around the island. They also occur in the surrounding shallow sea, mostly
growing on the beach rocks and calcareous sandstone concretions. The dead coral
colonies also occur in pool-like depressions within the high and low tide levels. Some
of them are located at an elevation of nearly 3.50m above the low tide level. The oldest
fossil coral belongs to Late Pleistocene, giving an age of 33,238 years (C14 dating).
The clearest indication of the Holocene upliftment of the island is the appearance of an
emerged 3.0m coquina limestone cliff on the coast of Dakshinpara ranging in age from

49
450 years at the base to 292 years at the top (C14 dating). The mean uplifting rate of
the island, calculated from the above data, is 19.0 mm/year. The location of the cliff is
1.5m above the present high tide level and on the eastern upthrown faulted block.
The emerged dead corals characterised by Porites sp, Acropora sp, Cyphostrea sp, and
Platygyrn sp provide evidence of lower level emergence, ie, they have been raised
above the level at which they are at present forming/living. The radiocarbon dates from
emerged dead corals are recorded below the ultra low level liquid scintillator's
detection limit (ie 0 BP). This suggests that the dead corals have emerged fairly
recently, indeed are still in the process of emerging. This means that the environment of
St Martin's Island is now not favourable for the growth and development of the only
coral island of the country that started forming at least since the last maximum glacial
age (ca 40,000 years ago) (Kabir, 2006).
5.5.2 Major Environmental Features of St. Martin’s Island
Geomorphic classification of this island has been made from several sources. Field data
and satellite imagery are the starting points of classification operation. Nine
classifications of geomorphic features have been identified in order to
geomorphologically characterize this island. These are major environmental features of
St. Martin’s Island.
1. Alluvium Cover (Flat Land): The general topography of the island is almost flat
and is occupied by fine to medium grained alluvial deposits. Overlaying the bedrock,
these alluvial deposits of less than two meters. thick, have developed good soil
horizons and an extended alluvial plain has been formed. This plain landform
occupies 33% of total area of the island and mostly been used for crop cultivation. At
the southern part of Dakshinpara, the plain land is sub-basin in shape and become
shallow inundation at Spring High Tide.
2. Sandy Beach (Sand Flat/ Sand Dune): Encircling the island, particularly in the
northeast, the zone between the Spring High and Low Tides can be characterized by an
accumulation of marine sands and has developed an extensive sandy beach. This beach
system has also been well developed surrounding the center of the island.
Differential beach sloping clearly indicates micro-scale spatial variation of sand
accumulation along the beach. At the northeast corner, the gentle gradient results a
wide emergence of land at low tide; whereas, on the west side, particularly at the
middle, the beach slope is steeper. The sandy beach in the North and North-east
stretches around 400 m into the sea. The Western beach is mainly sandy but the sub-
tidal area consists of a bed of boulders. The beach is the breeding habitat for globally
threatened turtles and a wintering habitat for shorebirds (Hossain, 2020).
3. Coastal dunes: Coastal dunes are developed in widespread immediately above
the beach and along the shoreline. Such dune system has well developed surrounding
the middle parts of the island. Dunes of the St. Martin's are of two types: high and low
dunes. High dunes are up to 6 m in height and are mostly found on the western side of
Galachipa. Dunes along northwest and southwest corners of the island are lower in

50
height, undulating and are broadly extended. Dune system of the St. Martin's island
acts as a natural defense against storm and tidal surges, and save lives and properties.
4. Shale Beach: Along the west and east sides of Dakshinpara, beach materials
have overwhelmingly been composed ci medium to coarse shale fragments and
broken coral debris. This unique shale beach landform is light grey to light purple in
color, rarely includes any minerogenic composition and is extended up to the lower
tidal limit of the island.
5. Low Lands (Inland water bodies, Lagoon): At the southern part of Dakshinpara,
the plain land is sub-basin in shape and become shallow inundation at Spring High
Tide. This lowland area is mostly been covered by planted mangrove Sotuietaiia
spp. There are three lagoons on the Island. The lagoons of Uttar Para and Dakhin Para
have now become muddy swamps with shallow water. These are only connected to
the sea at high tide through shallow creeks. But the lagoon that lies between the
Southern end of Dakhin Para and the three small islands comprising Cheradia retains
shallow water and is protected by widespread boulders and stone corals. The lagoons in
the North are older in origin and show a longer sequence of evolution, while the
lagoon in the South is much younger and is under the active marine influence (Kabir,
2006). Since the 1960s, the two Northern lagoons have gradually been converted into
paddy fields. This conversion has eliminated most of the original wildlife found in
these lagoons.
6. Spit and Tombolo: A unique geomorphic feature of St. Martin's island is the
development of a spit bar in its south. This typical spit bar landform of about 2 km long
and less than 100 m wide connects the mainland with Siradia. This bar has been formed
due to deposition and movement of fine to medium grained sand materials by a wave
and tidal currents. Islets: Siradia in the south consists of three small islets of which the
middle one is the largest and the southernmost one is possibly the oldest. The peaks of
these islets are less than 3 m in height from the MSL and become disconnected from
the mainland by nearly 1 m deep water at high tide. These are composed of relatively
coarser sand particles with frequent shale fragments, broken coral debris, and
foraminifera, and are overlaid nearly all sides by stony corals and boulders. The middle
islet has an undulating surface feature, has a sub-basin on its top and is under shallow
water depth at the extreme high tide. From its southeast corner, a horn like a landform
is exposed seaward. All these islets are covered by key (Pandanas) plants and some
bushes, although some mangroves are also grown in the middle islet (Islam,
2004).
7. Cuspate Foreland: Cuspate forelands are created primarily by longshore drift
formed by accretion and progradation of sand and shingle, they extend outwards from
the shoreline in a triangular shape. This geomorphic feature located on the northeast
side of the island.
9. Beach Covered with Concretions: A concretion is a hard, compact mass of matter
formed by the precipitation of mineral cement within the spaces between particles, and

51
is found in sedimentary rock or soil. Saint Martin Island beach covered with
concretions.
5.6 Implementation of the Coastal Zone Policy 2005, Bangladesh in the Visited
Coastal Places
The Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo), the first tier, was approved at the cabinet meeting on
January 17, 2005 (MoWR 2005). This policy document was formulated through a
process of multi-level consultation over a period of two years.
The CZPo is built on different sector policies of the Government of Bangladesh3 . The
policy states that the coastal development process aims to comply, on an overall basis,
with: the National Goal for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (PRSP); the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and with
other international conventions and treaties.
The CZPo establishes the goal of integrated CZ management: “to create conditions, in
which the reduction of poverty, development of sustainable livelihoods and the
integration of the CZ into national processes can take place”.
More specifically, the following development objectives are determined in the CZPo:
a. economic growth;
b. basic needs and opportunities for livelihoods;
c. reduction of vulnerabilities;
d. sustainable management of natural resources;
e. equitable distribution;
f. empowerment of communities;
g. women’s development and gender equity and
h. conservation and enhancement of critical ecosystems.
Recently coastal zone management, development and planning have received serious
attention by BGD. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Bangladesh is not
just for environmental or ecological gain but provides a survival strategy for millions
living at the mercy of nature. The adoption of the 2005 Coastal Zone Policy and
strategy in Bangladesh was a significant step towards implementing ICZM. The
Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo) of 2005 was adopted with the overall goal to create
conditions in which the reduction of poverty, development of sustainable livelihoods
and the integration of the coastal zone into national processes can take place. CZPo
aimed to provide a general guidance to all concerned for management and development
of the Coastal Zone in a manner so that coastal people are able to pursue their life and
livelihood (Iftekhar, 2006).
The Coastal Zone Management Policy in Bangladesh includes a wide range of issues
from economic development to ecosystem protection and conservation. But there has
no particular option to address natural disaster or reduction of vulnerabilities. There is
no clear guideline on how local development agencies should work with government
bodies. This is the limitation of Coastal Zone Policy, 2005. So initiative has seemingly

52
died off after 2005-2006, and has failed to show any great promise There were some
reasons such as (i) Failure to incorporate professionals qualified in Coastal Zone
Management, (ii) unreasonably land-centric view of the coastal zone, (iii) failure to
assemble a regular workforce etc (Iftekhar, 2006).
Some development initiatives have recently been taken in Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s
Island. Some are in the process of being initiated in different sectors, namely shipping,
fisheries, environment, research, etc. to either boost economic growth or to manage the
capital resources more sustainably. Recently Bangladesh oceanographic research
institute founded for coastal and oceanic research of all kinds. Ecologically Critical
Areas (ECA) in our visited places Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf beach and St. Martin’s Island
have been enforced in various coastal ecosystems to maintain critical habitats,
biodiversity, marine turtle breeding and conservation, and mangrove restoration and
growth. Mangrove afforestation in newly accreted intertidal areas has been going on for
decades now (khan, 1994).
5.7 Hazards and Disasters of Coastal Bangladesh
The coastal geomorphology of Bangladesh is characterized by its funnel shaped, vast
network of river, strong tidal and wind action and enormous river discharge laden with
bed and suspended sediments. Aside with these, wide and open coast, strong current
and wind, dynamics of erosion and siltration, natural slopping of the continent etc. are
considered as the salient features behind the causes of natural disasters. The poverty
monitoring survey of Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) in 1999 identified
different natural disasters like cyclone, river bank erosion, salinity intrusion, water
stagnation, heavy rainfall etc. as the main causes of perpetuating coastal poverty
(Lindek, 2003).
Some major Hazards and Disasters of Coastal Bangladesh are-
1. Sea Level Rise and Bangladesh
Being a low laying deltaic country, Bangladesh will face the serious consequences of
sea level rise including permanent inundation of huge land masses along the coast line.
There is a clear evidence of changing climate in Bangladesh which is causing changes
in the precipitation, increasing annual mean temperature and sea level rise. During a
period from 1961 to 1990 the annual mean temperature increased at the rate of 0.0037
degree Celsius but during 1961 to 2000 the rate was 0.0072. This mean, in the last
decade, annual mean temperature rise was almost double than the previous years.
We all opined that climatic change is occurring all over the world due to green house
effect, and anticipated sea level rise is likely to destroy most of the existing coastal
areas, if preventive measures cannot be taken with integrated effort globally.
Factual information regarding the extent of sea level rise in Bangladesh is very limited.
It is predicted that 2 degree temperature and 45 cm sea level rise would increase 29
percent risks of flooding of country’s low laying areas and may cause permanent
inundation of 145 km long coastline stretches from Cox’s Bazar to Badar Mokam. A

53
report published in 1998 shows that sea level rise would inundate 58 thousand hectares
of agricultural land (GoB, 2008).
Global climate experts, including IPCC, warns that Bangladesh will face acute climate
vulnerabilities, water related crises will be increased as the country is not high above
from the mean sea level. Analysis of metrological data from 1977 to 1998 clearly
shows annual sea level rise at the rate of 7.88 mm, 6 mm and 4 mm respectively in
Cox’s Bazar, Chardanga at Hatiya and Hiron Point in Sundarban.
Although changes in climatic condition seems little and slow even, but related
consequences of climate change like frequency and impact of flood, cyclone, drought,
irresistibleh diseases etc. are in increasing trend. On the basis of changing trend SMRC
predicts increase of annual mean temperature 0.22oC till 2050 and 0.41oC till 2100.
Similarly annual mean precipitation would increase 296 mm till 2050 and 543 mm till
2100.
2. Salinity and Water Logging
The coastal areas of Bangladesh have already been facing salinity problem which is
expected to be exacerbated by climate change and sea level rise, as sea level rise is
causing unusual height of tidal water. In dry season, when the flows of upstream water
reduce drastically, the saline water goes up to 240 kilometers inside the country and
reaches to Magura district. Presently around 31 upazillas of Jessore, Satkhira, Khulna,
Narail, Bagerhat and Gopalganj districts are facing severe salinity problem.
Agricultural activities as well as cropping intensities in those upazillas have been
changing; now farmers can’t grow multiple crops in a year (Bashirullah et al, 1989).
As sea level continues to rise the associated effects of permanent inundation is likely to
increase the salinity near coastal areas. A recent study shows that 5 ppt saline front will
penetrate about 40 km inland for SLR of 88 cm which is going to affect the only fresh-
water pocket of the Tetulia River in Meghna Estuary. A big chunk of the fresh- water
zone that will be disappearing due to sea level rise near to the estuary will have a far
reaching effect on the country’s ecology and will extinct some of its endangered
species (marked by IUCN) for ever.
3. Ingression of Soil Salinity
Salinity ingress also causes an increase in soil salinity, especially when farmers irrigate
their lands with slightly saline surface water at the beginning of the low flow period.
SRDI (1997; Soil Resource Development Institute of the Government of Bangladesh)
reported that, soil salinity levels south of Khulna and Bagerhat towns ranged between 8
to 15 dS/m during the low flow season. It is also reported that, several sub-districts
(such as Kachua, Mollahat, and Fultali) south of the Sundarbans „” known to be non-
saline in the pre-Farakka period „” have began to develop soil salinity during the low
flow seasons of 1980s. The anticipated results of salinity ingress will be, at a minimum,
of the same order for climate change induced low flow regime compared to similar
effects shown by deliberate withdrawal of flows at Farakka barrage.

54
The anticipated sea level rise would produce salinity impacts in three fronts: surface
water, groundwater and soil. Increased soil salinity due to climate change would
significantly reduce food grain production. Even at present, some parts of coastal lands
are not being utilized for crop production, mostly due to soil salinity; and this situation
would aggravate further under a climate change scenario. A modeling exercise has
indicated that, under the changed climate conditions, the index of aridity would
increase in winter. Consequently, higher rates of capillary action from an increased rate
of topsoil desiccation would accentuate the salinity problem (GoB, 2008).
4. Flood and Water Logging
Due to geographical setting Bangladesh has to receive and drain-out huge volume of
upstream waters. The flows of mighty rivers the Meghna, Padma and Brhammaputra,
originated from the Himalayans, drain-out in the Bay of Bengal flowing through-out
the country. In the summer, from May to August, the melting of glaciers in the
Himalayans make the rivers in Bangladesh live. The rainy season, which is strongly
influenced by monsoon wind from the South-West, also sets on at the same period and
causes huge precipitation. Therefore, the combined effect of upstream flows,
precipitation and terrestrial run-off resulted to over flooding, causing water logging and
prolong flood almost every year. But the worsening condition is that the trend of
melting ice along with rainfall has been increasing due to rising temperature in the
Himalayans. As result the frequent floods are happening causing devastating affect to
the people’s live and livelihoods.
On the other hand, rising sea level is causing water level rise in the rivers and thereby
accelerating risks of flood and water logging. Again, as the elevation our coastal plain
is only 3-5 meter from the mean sea level, a vast coastal areas, approximately 18% of
total land, would submerge by 1 meter sea level rise. The major reason behind this
assumptions are a) no defense mechanism for the protection of coastal plain land and b)
sea level will rise following the contour line. But in fact, the coastal plain lands in
central zone, the sediment rich and fresh water flow dominated areas are naturally well
protected. Nonetheless some areas are remaining under risk of over flooding due to
back water effect (Chowdhury, 1998).
The problem of water logging might be more dangerous than flooding. Already many
coastal places, where sustainable drainage network system hasn’t developed, are facing
water logging problem and the intensity of problem is appearing as a catastrophe day
by day. This is to keep in mind that in the beginning years of dam/ embankment
construction there was no EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) and those
embankments hampered the natural siltration process and slowing down the creation of
delta. Therefore, the unplanned dam/embankment construction, in one hand, is causing
flood and water logging problem, and on the other hand provocating severity of sea
level rise through hampering natural siltration process. To face this problem effective
measure should be taken, especially in the coastal areas. Likewise densely populated
coastal areas, Sundarban, the world’s largest stretch of mangrove forest, is also
vulnerable to the consequences of global warming and sea level rise. As the tidal flow

55
and wave action is high in the mangrove forest area so only 45 centimeters sea level
rises would inundate about 75 percent of forest area and 67 centimeters rise in sea level
would submerge the entire Sundarbans. Though, in congruence with sea level rise,
siltration process would cause relative elevation of Sundarban but this relative elevation
might not be enough to combat the risk of sea level rise. In fact the risk of over
flooding and inundation of Sundarban is still a concern.
5. Intrusion of Saline water
Salinity intrusion in Bangladesh coast is very seasonal. In the rainy season (June-
October) intrusion of saline water is minimum due to extreme flow of fresh water, but
in the dry season, especially in winter, saline water goes upward gradually. In the rainy
season where saline water ingress to 10 percent of country’s area, in the dry season
saline water reaches to country’s 40 percent area even. Due to changing climate the
ingression of salinity might be increased through following way.

 Increased sea level will cause water ingression in the rivers.

 Decreasing trend of fresh water flow from the upstream will cause
intrusion of saline water.
 Upward pressure of the saline and fresh water interface in the level of
underground Aquifer
 Downward seepage of saline water from surface and salinisation of
underground water
 The pace of evaporation in winter will increase soil salinity
 Frequency and intensity of tidal surges will increase ingression of saline
water.
6. Cyclone and Bangladesh’s Coast
The entire coastal zone is prone to violent storm and tropical cyclones during pre
monsoon and post monsoon season. Therefore, the Bangladesh coastal zone could be
termed a geographical ‘death trap’ due to its extreme vulnerability to cyclones and
storm surges. Nearly one million people have been killed in Bangladesh by cyclones
since 1820. As many as 10 percent of the world’s cyclone develop in the Indian Ocean
but they cause 85 percent of the world’s cyclonic havoc. The massive loss of life from
cyclones is due to the large number of coastal people living in poverty within poorly
constructed houses, the inadequate numbers of cyclone shelters, the poor cyclone
forecasting and warning systems and the extremely low laying lands in the coastal
zones. Sometimes cyclone associated with tidal waves caused great loss of lives and
property. The physiology, morphology and other natural conditions have made it
vulnerable to disaster, cyclonic storms and floods which are very devastating and cause
immense suffering and damage to people, property and the environment. Cyclonic
storms have always been a major concern to coastal plains and offshore island of
Bangladesh. Usually, cyclone is a vortex of low pressure system characterized by large
scale convergence of moist air in the boundary layer which forces to ascend vertically
upward causing strong columns convection and releasing large amount of latent heat

56
due to condensation. Whenever a convective cloud mass develops over the southern
Bay and sustain for a number of days without decaying then there is a probability that
the system may develop into a tropical cyclone and it is needed to keep watch on such a
system. There are some other characteristics in the structure and dimension of the cloud
mass which provides indication of a probable cyclogenesis and these can be monitored
through satellite image.
Cyclones usually forms in the Bay of Bengal under some metrological conditions, these
are;

 At least 27 degree Celsius temperature in an extended sea surface area creating

huge volume of water vapor.
 Absence of vertical air or strong presence of depression area
 Presence of Coriolis force.

Sales

27%

9% 64%

Other Season Pre Monsoon Post Monsoon

Fig 22: Season wise Cyclone Distribution

Cyclones those hit the coastal areas of Bangladesh, usually forms in the ‘Intertropical
Convergence Zone’ situated between 5 and 10 degree latitudes of the Indian Ocean.
These cyclones, afterward, directed above 6-9 km from the sea surface towards the
coast through accelerating speed and force by wind blowing.
Therefore, the cyclone accompanied with torrential rain and devastating tidal surge
causes havoc to lives and property in the cyclone path, and the environment in the
affected area. In the islands and coastal mainland of Bangladesh the major aftermaths
of a cyclone are loss of human lives, livestock’s, fishes, agricultural properties and
production, inundation of land and ponds by saline water, loss of houses, break-down
of sanitation system, nonavailability of safe drinking water and food stuff.
From the historical records it can be seen that there are two peaks in the annual
distribution of the tropical cyclone formation in the Bay of Bengal, one is May and
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another is the November within the peak season pre-monsoon (April-May) and post
monsoon (Oct- Nov) respectively. During 1891-1990, 700 cyclones occurred, of which
62 in pre-monsoon and 192 in Post-monsoon season.
7. Coastal Erosion
River erosion and loss of coastal habitable and cultivable land is an acute national
problem and one of the major natural hazards. Although erosion does not cause loss of
lives, but it cause huge economic loss; makes people asset and rootless.
Since long years, erosion has been becoming a regular natural phenomenon along the
belts of out reach coastal islands like Bhola, Sandwip, Hatia, Kubdia, which has been
turned to massive in the recent years. The major causes of erosion are observed as;

 The Ganges Brahamputra Meghna (GBM) river system carries immense volume
of water silt. During the monsoon, GBM system carries about 1.7 billion tons of
silts per year causing severe turbulence the rivers. This results in gradual
undercutting of riverbanks leading to erosion.
 During high tide 30868 m3 sea water flows upward through the cannels of
Kutubdia, Sandwip and Hatia. Again these channels carry down the upstream
fresh waters from 38,896 m2 coastal and midland areas of Bangladesh. The
immense pressure of the downwards flows, strong tidal circulation etc. results
unprecedented erosion of coastal habitats.
By river bank erosion Hatiya has reduced from 1000 sq. km to only 21 sq. km over 350
years and Swandip has lost 180 sq km in the last 100 years. Such erosion adversely
affect on the ecosystem, navigation, planned agriculture development and drainage
system. It has also affect on inland navigational route as of shifting and migration of
channels. Factors those are accelerating riverbank and land erosion are: a) destruction
of coastal mangroves for shrimp farming and b) unplanned dam and cross road
construction etc.
5.8 Sufferings of Local People from Environmental Hazards and Disasters in
Visited Coastal Places
According to the respondents, for the past ten years or more significant changes have
been observed in the surrounding environmental conditions including the weather and
climate of the coastal areas. Natural disasters like cyclones, storms, and flooding
frequency have increased in the area a lot more than previous times. Due to cyclones
and storm surge, dams get damaged and sea saline water came to the agricultural lands
easily. Salinity in the water has increased which has affected the production of crops
and agricultural lands are not suitable for growing crops anymore. Most of the residents
earn their living by fishing and farming agricultural lands. Production of agricultural
products in these lands reduced remarkably after the disaster hit the area and now these
farmers are suffering financially (Uddin et. al, 2018).
One of the respondents from Cox’s Bazar beach area stated that few years back, they
used to produce a lot of different agricultural goods including fresh vegetables and
58
fruits. By selling them in the mainstream market they could have earned the money that
was sufficient for them to live a year on without any further production, but today this
is not possible and also nature is not supporting them.
The respondents experienced that salinity in the coastal area has become severe and
saline water mixed with cultivated lands. As a result, cultivated lands are becoming
abandoned. Due to high salinity, cattle were not getting enough food. This led to
farmers finding it extremely hard to use them for ploughing the farming land. Poor
people who used to cultivate crops and graze their cattle on the open space of shoals
said frequent disasters are taking their toll on the agriculture sector forcing them to
change their cultivation pattern. Many sweet water fish died due to the influx of saline
water while water hyacinth and crops were rotten.
Further to these challenges in agriculture, climate change has also had harmful effects
on other community sources of livelihoods such as casual labouring, fishing, hunting,
and crafting. It is worthy to note that many of these livelihoods depend on the
performance of agriculture; for example, casual labouring is usually done on weeding
and harvesting.
One respondent from the Uttarpara village of St. Martin’s Island said: “We live our life
like a wanderer amid insecurity and thwarting as sometimes our crops lands are
destroyed by cyclonic storm.”  One of the respondents from Golachipa Village of St.
Martin’s Island said in a depressed tone, “Me and my family are living a wretched life
and have been struggling with poverty since becoming landless.”
One respondent called Sattar Ali recalled a past cyclone and storm surge event. He said,
“Just after the disaster, there was a severe shortage of food and scarcity of pure
drinking water in the affected areas. Though some families managed to get some food
due to a lack of combustible substances, cooking was not easy and they had to live day
after day eating raw food. Most of the local food shops were damaged or closed due to
a lack of supplies (the lack of supplies being a result of the breakdown in the transport
system). Non-government organizations again provided some relief but government
help was not adequate.”
Their living conditions are now poor; however, many GOs and NGOs are working to
bring back normalcy. There are not enough job opportunities in the local areas and
those who were farmers and fishermen are also trying to switch their jobs in order to
increase their finances.
One of the respondents who was severely affected by past disasters stated that, due to a
lack of job opportunities and to maintain the household expenses, some of the families
and in some cases the heads of the households are leaving the village and migrating to
different cities like Dhaka and Chittagong. Some people had migrated to the
neighboring country India. People are leading a very miserable life as their income
from agriculture and fishing, their only means of livelihoods, is just insufficient. This
resembles a larger picture of Bangladesh where climate change has threatened the lives
and livelihoods of millions of people.

59
According to the participants, the main sources of the infectious diseases are polluted
and highly saline water, unhealthy sanitation, unclean environment, unhygienic food,
excessive hot weather, and vector borne infections. Due to climate change, natural
calamity is now common in these areas. This changes the natural environment and
more infectious diseases are emerging (many of which were not common 20 years
ago).
To tackle the health problems, both GO and NGOs are working in the affected areas.
They introduced a new deep tube well for safe drinking water, constructed hygienic
toilets, and distributed water-purifying tablets; bleaching powder and awareness
building programmes were undertaken by different agencies. They also distributed
general medicines to the people in the community.
5.9 Observed Disaster Resilient Features in Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s Island
During our field trip in Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s Island we observed several
disaster resilient features. They are given below-
1. Cyclone Shelters
We have noticed several cyclone shelters in Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s Island.
Cyclone shelters play a crucial role in protecting human lives in the coastal region of
Bangladesh against the impacts of cyclones. During Cyclone Sidr, 15% of the affected
population took refuge in shelters. Despite the proposed rehabilitation of some of the
polder embankments there is still an estimated requirement for around 5,700 additional
shelters to provide adequate storm-surge and flood inundation protection for year 2050
climate predictions, particularly in those areas identified as having a risk of inundation
greater than 3m (Islam, 2004).
2. Coastal Green Belt
We observed Coastal Green Belt in the Teknaf upazilla of Cox’s Bazar. Dense forests
can attenuate wave velocity. In order to better protect life in coastal areas from
cyclones and tidal surges, in 1966, the Forest Department began a mangrove plantation
programme outside the protective coastal embankments. The programme was based on
evidence that the Sundarban’s natural mangrove forests provided effective protection
from wind and waves for the western coastal areas and, thus, it was expected that the
planting of belts of mangrove would give a worthwhile degree of protection to other
coastal areas of the country open to the sea.
3. Polders
Polders were available both in Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf area and St. Martin’s Island.
Polders work as an important disaster resilient feature. Polders are mainly designed to
provide protection against tidal intrusion with the main objective of increasing
agricultural production; however, they also provide protection against floods and storm
surges. Polders are now part of the natural setting of coastal Bangladesh. Drainage in
these polders is provided at low tide by means of flap gates mounted in sluice

60
structures, usually located where natural drainage channels (khals) cross the
embankment alignments. Polderization has contributed considerably to altered and new
land use in coastal Bangladesh (Uddin et. al, 2018).
4. Coastal Embankment
The CEP comprises a complex network of dikes and drainage sluices and was the first
comprehensive plan for providing protection against flood and saline water intrusion in
the coastal area. Coastal embankments were very common in both Cox’s Bazar and St.
Martin’s Island. Specially in Cox’s Bazar Marine Drive Road embanks from Concrete
block were noticeable.
5. Sandbags
Sandbags were noticeable in both Inani Beach (Part of Cox’s Bazar Beach) and St.
Martin’s beach area. Sandbags help prevent erosion when they are packed and placed
near roadways in danger of collapsing because of erosion. On beaches, sandbag
structures provide temporary reefs, groynes, breakwaters, and headlands or revetments
on sand beaches.
5.10 Effects of the Tourism in Coastal Bangladesh
Tourism can bring many economic, social and environmental benefits, particularly in
coastal and rural areas and developing countries, yet mass tourism is also associated
with negative effects. Tourism can only be sustainable if it is carefully managed so that
probable negative effects on the host community and the environment are not permitted
to outweigh the financial benefits.
5.10.1 Positive effects of tourism in coastal Bangladesh
a. Contribution to GDP: Coastal and marine tourism in Bangladesh contributes to
GDP in many ways. Tourism activities in coastal and marine spots involve direct
production of numerous goods (e.g. foods, entertainment equipment, and recreational
equipment) and services (e.g. accommodation, transport, retail trade, recreation).
According to WTTC (2018), the total contribution of travel & tourism to GDP in
Bangladesh was $10,567.4mn (4.3% of GDP) in 2017.
b. Employment Generation: WTTC (2018) quotes President & CEO of WTTC as
saying “Travel & Tourism, which already supports one in every 10 jobs on the planet,
is a dynamic engine of employment opportunity”. Although Bangladesh is not on a par
with the world in this respect the contribution of Travel & Tourism in general and
coastal and marine tourism in particular to employment generation is not ignorable.
Many hotels, restaurants, retailers, and street vendors are serving tourists in the
country’s tourist attractions along the seashore, creating extensive employment
opportunity.
c. Poverty Alleviation: Many of the jobs created in tourism sector are accessible to the
poor due to low requirement in terms of skill and investment. Many tourism activities

61
particularly in the coastal region of Bangladesh are suited to the people of
disadvantaged groups.
d. Foreign Exchange Earnings: One of the great benefits of coastal and marine
tourism in Bangladesh is earning foreign exchange. Thanks to international tourists
spending within Bangladesh, the country earns a good amount foreign currency each
year. In 2017, it earned $228.5 M from visitor exports which was 0.6% of total exports
(WTTC, 2018). A significant portion of this is due to tourism in the costal and marine
zones.
e. Socio-Cultural Benefits: Sustainable tourism brings diverse socio-cultural benefits.
It promotes peace by fostering understanding between local residents and tourists. It
facilitates the preservation and transmission of cultural and historical traditions. It
raises awareness among local people about the socio-economic value of the tourist
sites.
f. Environmental Benefits: Multiple environmental benefits may emerge from
sustainable tourism. When environmental sites are allocated for tourism keeping them
presentable to the tourists in a sustainable manner becomes an important duty of the
concerned authorities. Thus the authorities have incentives to take necessary steps in
order to adequately protect and preserve the sites. Since sustainable tourism is often
community-based, it makes the local people actively participate in the management and
thereby stimulates public awareness of the value of environment and nature. So the
residents of the local community lend support to the conservation of the tourist site.
Moreover, various fees and taxes collected from tourists form a handsome government
fund which can be spent for offsetting environmental degradations, if any. Although
Bangladesh cannot claim that its coastal and marine tourism is fully sustainable, it
seems to be on the way to that goal. Gradually it would be able to reap all of these
benefits.
g. Protecting Coastal Areas: Development of sustainable coastal and marine tourism
in Bangladesh might have double dividend: huge influx of tourists and protection of
coastal areas from natural disasters. A proper tourism plan will precipitate enormous
development activities including building dams and embankments, and establishing
mangrove plantations in the coastal zones. Such activities will create amenity services
with facilities and will protect the coastal zones from sea waves, wave surges and
cyclones.
5.10.2 Negative Effects of Tourism in Coastal Bangladesh
a. Water Resources: Water, and especially fresh water, is one of the most critical
natural resources. The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels,
swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result in
water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater
volume of waste water. Waste water has detrimental negative impacts on the coastal
environment.

62
b. Local Resources: Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy,
food, and other raw materials of costal area of Bangladesh that may already be in short
supply. Greater extraction and transport of these resources exacerbates physical impacts
associated with their exploitation. Because of the seasonal character of the industry,
many destinations have ten times more inhabitants in the high season than in the low
season. High demand is placed upon these resources to meet the high expectations
tourists often have (proper heating, hot water, etc.).
c. Air and Noise Pollution: Transport by air, road, and rail is continuously increasing
in response to the rising number of tourists and their greater mobility. Transport
emissions and emissions from energy production and use are linked to acid rain, global
warming and photochemical pollution. Air pollution from tourist transportation has
impacts on global level, especially from carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to
transportation energy use. It contributes to severe local air pollution in coastal
Bangladesh. Some of these impacts are quite specific to tourist activities.
Noise pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, is a problem of modern life. In addition
to causing annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to
coastal wildlife and it’s environment.
d. Sewage: Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to
increased sewage pollution. Wastewater pollutes seas and lakes surrounding tourist
attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to
coral reefs of St. Martin’s island because it contains lots of nutrients and it stimulates
the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their ability to
survive. Changes in salinity and transparency can have wide-ranging impacts on coastal
environments. And sewage pollution can threaten the health of humans and animals.
e. Deforestation and intensified or unsustainable use of land: Construction of picnic
resort accommodation and facilities frequently requires clearing forested land. Coastal
wetlands are often drained and filled due to lack of more suitable sites for construction
of tourism facilities and infrastructure. These activities can cause severe disturbance
and erosion of the local ecosystem, even destruction in the long term.
f. Marina development: Development of marinas and breakwaters can cause changes
in currents and coastlines. Furthermore, extraction of building materials such as sand
affects coral reefs, mangroves, and hinterland forests, leading to erosion and
destruction of habitats.

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 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
6.1 Lessons Learned from the Industrial Trip and how it would Improve My
Academic Knowledge as a Student of Environmental Science and Disaster
Management
As a student of Environmental Science and Disaster Management, we get a yearly tour
but this tour was special as it was our first Industrial Tour. As part of our Industrial
Tour course, we went to CEPZ and visited Pacific Jeans. From visiting the industry I
learned about how an industry works and how they manage their wastewater through
ETP without polluting the environment. The treatment of effluent is vital before it is
discharged into oceans, rivers, and streams to prevent damage to the environment,
animals, and human health. By using ETP industries can have lesser environmental
effects and grow sustainably. I finally got the opportunity to gain practical knowledge
about ETP and how a million-dollar textile industry works in a sustainable way.
Previously our knowledge about it was limited to book and class lectures. Since water
and wastewater treatment is a major part of Environmental Science, this was the most
crucial part of the industrial trip.
Then we did our field trip on Rangamati where we visited Sajek Valley and Kaptai
Lake. I learned about the geomorphology as well as the tectonics and formation pattern
of the hills. Overall from visiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts my knowledge about the
physical environment of Bangladesh was enriched. I got to observe different rocks and
rock layers firsthand. I studied these things in previous courses and finally got the
chance to observe them with my own eyes. I also observed the complex and
biodiversity-rich ecosystem of hill tracts. But the biodiversity of this region is facing
threats due to human population growth and deforestation. To date, the most significant
causes of extinction are habitat loss, the introduction of exotic species, and
overharvesting. From illegal poaching to the cutting of hills are creating major

64
disruption to the ecosystem of these regions. Extensive pressure from tourism is
another contributing factor. Implementation of strict environmental laws to conserve
the biodiversity of hill tracts has become necessary now. As a student of Environmental
Science and Disaster Management, it has helped me to realize why the implementation
of Environmental Law is pivotal in a biologically diverse area like this.
Next, we went to Cox’s Bazar and observed the coast of south-eastern Bangladesh for
the first time. The area is directly exposed to the longshore current and periodic tidal
oscillations with occasional wash-over by cyclonic storm surges. Cox’s Bazar is often
subject to coastal hazards and disasters. Since hazards and disasters are an important
part of Environmental Science and Disaster Management, visiting coastal disaster-
prone areas like Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s Island gave me practical knowledge
about disaster management and how an effective disaster management approach can
work in this region. I also got to observe some resilient features which are used to
reduce the damage from a disaster. People here live their life in uncertainty and
hazards/disasters are part of their life. Government need to improve disaster
management and Biodiversity of this region is also under threat due to extensive
tourism and forests are getting cleared for agricultural purpose and population pressure.
For example, vast littoral Chakoria mangrove forest has been cleared for agriculture.
The last place we visited during our industrial tour and field trip is St. Martin’s Island. I
observed the unique geological feature and biodiversity of St. Martin’s Island. It was
very obvious that the island has lost its capacity to hold so many tourists and hotel and
shipping-related activities. Ever-increasing population and careless tourism have been
pointed out as the number one problem which is putting a lot of stress on the resources
of the island and on the fragile coral ecosystem which shelters a diverse variety of
marine biodiversity which is not found anywhere else in Bangladesh.
Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf peninsula and St. Martin’s Island are among the Ecologically
Critical Areas (ECAs) of Bangladesh. This is the first time I have visited an
Ecologically Critical Area. I got to observe the unique biodiversity of ECAs and how
excessive human pressure and tourist activities harming their unique biodiversity. It has
helped me understand how complex an ecosystem is and how the disruption of one
component can collapse the whole ecosystem. Also, another thing I realized Integrated
coastal zone management (ICZM) has become essential to obtain sustainable
development in these areas. So, overall this industrial tour has enriched my real-world
and firsthand knowledge about Environmental Science and Disaster Management.
6.2 Suggestions to Maintain the Sustainability of the Biodiversity and Coastal
Environment of Bangladesh
Bangladesh has a coastline of about 710 km long and 121,110 km 2 Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) which are characterized by uniquely differentiated ecosystems having
significant ecological and economic importance and potential. As a densely populated
developing nation with emerging economies, the coastal and marine ecosystems are
facing a growing wave of changes originated both from natural and anthropogenic

65
sources. The challenges are multiples and progressive that included unplanned coastal
development (coastal constructions, urbanization, tourism and aquaculture), pollution
and environmental degradation, sequential depletion of fish stocks, progressive loss of
biodiversity and habitat, and loss of ecological processes (Khan, 1994).
Followings are some suggestions to maintain the sustainability of the biodiversity and
coastal environment of Bangladesh:

 Develop a land use planning for the coastal areas to protect coastal lands from
other uses like agriculture shrimp culture, industries etc.
 Undertake appropriate legal measures to protect newly formed coastal lands
from illegal grabbing and bring them under mangrove plantation and
resettlement of landless people.
 Take special measures to protect the Sundarbans by ensuring adequate water
flow through dredging of accreted rivers and canals, necessary institutional
support and appropriate management regime.
 Develop eco-friendly tourism policy from the coastal tourism hot- spots. With
an increased number of domestic tourists in the recent years during a shorter
time span e.g. usually in the winter season and long national holidays the spots
of tourist attractions are becoming polluted by human residues, in some cases
(e.g. Saint Martin’s Island) resources are being over- exploited leading to
ecosystem degradation and destruction. Hence, coastal and marine tourism
development should be guided by proper planning, management standards and
guidelines of green tourism so that the threat to biodiversity and cultural
heritage are reduced (Hossain, 2001).
 Develop infrastructure along with proper security measures for beach and cruise
tourism.
 Pro-poor tourism (PPT) intervention should be adopted to increase net benefits
to the poor and ensure that tourism growth contributes to poverty reduction in
the coastal zone.
 Promote eco-system-based adaptation measures through resource conservation
and reducing anthropogenic stress to the climate change exposed ecosystems.
 Undertake measures to limit marine pollution and curtail over- fishing which
might have a positive effect on the ability of marine ecosystems to adapt to
climate change impacts.
 Undertake coordinated research both nationally and regionally on selected
resources and other transboundary issues like pollution, habitat degradation, and
fish migration.
 Undertake strict measures and vigilance to prevent foreign vessels using the
Bay of Bengal as dumping place of hazardous wastes.
 Develop a spatial mapping of the marine resources of the Bay of Bengal with
possible projections for future resource extraction in a sustainable manner.
 Undertake measures and technological innovation for mariculture and sea
ranching in the continental shelf of the Bay of Bengal. The potential of such

66
 practice would release pressure of overexploitation on fisheries and improved
well-being of the population.
 Invest in human resource capacity building in diverse fields of marine economic
activities as well as environmental and biodiversity issues which needs to
address through appropriate training and skill development.
 Undertake long-term plan and strategies to protect the mangroves from the
predicted impacts of climate change especially form sea level rise by facilitating
gradual elevation by silt deposition and management and enhance freshwater
outflow through the rivers and creeks.
 Establishment of Marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs are particularly
important for protecting critical habitat and species from degradation and over-
exploitation.
 Establish effective regional cooperation for strengthening, monitoring, and
controlling and surveillance mechanisms to prevent illegal fishing.

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