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Chapter 6 iO'I1i~ bfT.Bc1~dtonBat gi1ibliUd

Walls
6.1 Introduction
A wall may be defined as a vertical member, the width (i.e., length) of which exceeds four times the thickness.
In contact to this a column is an isolated load-bearing member, the width of which does not exceed four times
the thickness.
Wall is one of the most essential components of a building. The primary function of a wall is to enclose or
divide space of the building to make it more functional and useful. Walls provide privacy, afford security and
give protection against heat, cold, sun and rain. Walls can provide support to floors and roofs. Therefore, walls
should be so designed as to have provision of adequate strength and stability; weather resistance; durability;
fife resistance; thermal insulation and sound insulation.
6.2 Types ofWaUs
A distinction between various types of wall can be made in two different ways:
1. as to their position in the building: i.e. walls in substructures, which include foundation walls and
basementwalls, and walls in superstructures,which include external walls and internal walls.
2. as to their function: i.e. whether they are load bearing walls or partition walls. Load bearing walls
(structural) are those carrying loads from beams and or from walls above. They must therefore posses
sufficient strength and stability. Partition walls on the other hand, do not have load-carrying function.
They may be erected or removed without any effect on the structural parts of a building.
The function of the foundation wall is to transmit the load coming from the superstructure. In selecting the
type of material for the making of foundation wall; two factors should be taken into consideration: load
bearing capacity, and resistance against effect of the under ground, such as swelling pressure, uplift pressure,
chemical attack, etc.
The function of basementwall is to support vertical load (if load bearing.); to resist lateral load and to protect
the building from dampness. Whether a wall is load -bearing or not, it must satisfy certain requirements in
different respect. In this regard, external wall must provide protection against wind and rain, should insulate
heat, be water repellent, fire resisting and capable of sound insulation.
External walls have generally to fulfill several purposes: For instance, the wall of an ordinary house usually
has to support the first floor and the roof; keep the interior warm and dry and give protection from street noise
and from fire. Some times the task of the wall may be simpler; for example, in a framed structure the wall will
not have to support anything. Again, in some buildings such as warehouses,the wall may not have to provide
thermal or sound insulation. In the majority of cases, however, it remains true that the wall has to satisfy
simultaneously a number of different requirements.
When the wall is load bearing, its strength must be sufficient to carry the loads placed on it. These loads are
calculated from the live and dead loads on the structure supported by the wall. Wind pressure must also be
taken into account in the design of external walls, and indeed for panel walls in a framed structure, the
principal strength requirement is the power to withstand wind load.
Internal walls are basically required to separate rooms and therefore not all requirements discussed m the
external walls are all required. However, they should have sufficient sound and heat insulating capacity and
should be water repellent.
6.3 External Walls
6.3.1 Materials for external walls
The materials employed depend on several factors, among which the following are more important: the
material locally available; the standard of the house planned; the climatic conditions; the cost and aesthetic
requirements; the laborers available and function of the wall to be constructed (load' bearing or non-load ,.
beari~g). 1 .
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.Fire resistance is normally required in an external wall, in-order to reduce/preventthe spread of fires from one
building to another, and their requirement has a bearing on the number and size of windows, as well as on the
materials used in the wall.
6.3.2 Types of external walls
In addition to the traditional materials such as wood and chika, brickwork, masonry walls, reinforced concrete,
glass, metals and plastics are now being employed in the construction of external walls. External walls can be
classified in different groups according to their structural functions and physical nature. The classification
based on structural function is based on whether the wall is load bearing or non-load bearing. On the other
hand, the many and various types of external walls can be usefully thought of as the following three groups,
depending on their physical nature: block construction; monolithic construction and composite or panel
construction.
6.3.3 Walls of block construction
Walls composed of stones or bricks are of block construction. They are formed of fairly small units set in a
matrix of cement mortar. The properties of such a wall depend on the material of which the block is composed
and on the mortar. Walls made up of stone, brick, hollow concrete blocks, hollows and solid concrete blocks,
etc. are included in this category.
6.3.3.1 Brick walls
Brick walls are in widespread use, both as load-bearing walls and as non-load bearing walls in framed
structures. Materials used in brick masonry construction are bricks and mortar.
The various kinds of bricks are:
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~-;:~j! ii. facing bri~k: are generally selec~edfirst class bricks, which are used, for face work and it is essential
c~",~ to have uniform color, texture, SIze,etc.
f:f8 iii. fire bricks: are made of special fire clays. They are used for lining in fire places, furnaces, etc. where
high temperatures are prevalent and ordinary bricks get decompose.
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ni iv. glazed and colored bricks: colored bricks are used where Special color treatment is needed or where
.ordinary bricks of uniform color are not available. Glazed bricks have one surface in white or any
other color. These are used for exterior surfaces of walls or partitions, in dairies, hospitals, etc., where
cleanliness is important.
The essential quality of brickwork is that it attains in one material reasonably good performance under
loading. A brick wall is strong enough to carry fair loads and provides moderate thermal insulation.
The clay brick is the most widely used walling material in Ethiopia. For ordinary building work, brick is
undoubtedly one of the oldest forms of construction known for walls on account of the size in which it is
made. It always ensures easy erection. One of the reasons for the continued widespread use of brick as an
external walling material is the extent to which it retains its good appearance over a long period with a
minimum of upkeep. Bricks can be produced in different sizes and shapes. The standard size of bricks
produced in Addis Brick factory and Burayou Brick factory in Addis Ababa is 6 x 12 x 25 cm (H x W xL).
Typical forms of brick portion are shown in Fig. 6.1.
It is important to be familiar with the following terminologies as regards to brick works.
Stretcher: a stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seenin the elevation of the wall.
Header: a header in the shorter faces of the brick as seenin the elevation of the wall.
Lap: lap in the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick consists.
Bed: bed is the lower surface of the brick when laid flat.
Closer: It is a portion of a brick with the cut made longitudinally and is used to close up bond at the end of the
course. A closer helps in preventing the joints of successivecoursesto come in a vertical line. ,.
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King closer: It is the portion of a brick, which is so cut that the width of one of its end is half that of a full
brick, while the width at the other end is equal to the full width.
Beveled closer.. It is a special foml of a king closer in which the whole length of the brick is beveled in such a
way that half width is maintained at one end and full width is maintained at the other end
Mitered closer: It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitered for full width
It will be understood that if the bricks in a wall were built one on top of the other with eachjoint immediately
over that underneath, it could not be one interlaced mass. Therefore, walls are built in what is commonly
known as bond. Bond is the system of lying bricks in such a manner that there is no vertical joint in any row or

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course immediately above or below the one considered. This is necessary to ensure that each brick is
interlaced so that together with the cementing material, the whole wall is one unifOml mass.

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There are several kinds of bonds but the main ones in general use are stretcher bond; English bond; English
cross bond and Flemish bond. Typical bonding types are shown in Fig. 6.2.
6.3.3.1.1 Strength of brick works
Until very recently there was little reliable scientific data available on the strength of brickwork. Empirical
knowledge, based on long practical experience, was embodied in sets of rules laying down the thickness of
solid brick work required for walls of various heights, and for the degree of lateral support required from
cross-walls or piers. For instance, half brick walls are not to be used as structural walls, but only as a partition.
Further it should be remembered that the strength of a wall is no greater than its weakest point. Since brick is
laid with a mortar joint, the specification of the mortar joint is greater importance if the brickwork is to give a
satisfactory performance. Broadly, it is important that the mortar should be specified (and mixed) in relation to
the brick with which it is to be used, and should be comparable in strength and density with the brick itself. A
strong, dense brick usually requires a strong densemortar. c.
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Bricks should be well damped before use, in order not to absorb the moisture from the mortar during the brick
laying process as the strength of the mortar would be thereby reduced. In addition, the walls should be kept
well

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English bond
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damp at least for three days, in order to let the mortar harden without premature loss of moisture.
6.3.3.1.2 Joints in brick work
Joints are the weakest part of a masonry structure and unless special care is paid to them, the II: brickwork
cannot be ~f good strength. Appearance of brickwork also depends on the proper laying and finishing of ,.

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joints. Most of the defects in brick masonry joints occur on account of improper application of mortar. The
purpose of finishing the joints is to improve the appearanceof brickwork and to make it more waterproof. The
finishing of joints as the brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing whereas finishing of joints after the
brickwork has been completed is called pointing.
The edges of the joints in brickwork will be deficient in hardnessand density. The expansion and contraction
of the brick is liable to causethe mortar in the joint crack or loosen the brick from the mortar. The mortar near
the exposed face is, therefore, prone to dislodgment. Unless the wall is to be plastered, it is necessaryto refill
very compactly the surface joints for a depth of about 2-3 cm with a neat mix of cement mortar of proportion
1: 1. This process is known as pointing. The term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joints in
masonry. In exposed masonry, joints are considered to be the weakest and most valuable spots from which
rain water or dampnesscan enter.
6.3.3.1.3 Types of pointing fwishes
Generally, brickwork is jointed by striking, raking or rubbing the mortar while it is green. Pointing on the
other hand consists of raking out the "green" mortar in the joint to a depth of about 20 mm and then refilling
the joint with fresh mortar. Typical pointing profiles are shown in Fig. 6.3

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6.3.3.1.3.1 Flush. or flat pointing:

These types of pointing are formed by pressing mortar in the raked joint and by fmishing off flush with the
edges of masonry unit. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel and straight edges. This type of pointing
does not give good appearance; however, it is more durable since it does not provide any space for the
accumulation of dust, water, etc.
6.3.3.1.3.2. Struck pointing
This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face of pointing is kept inclined, with its upper edge
pressed inside. The point permits water to drop off from the face of the brickwork. The appearanceof this
pointing is not satisfactory if ordinary bricks are used becauseunevennessin the edges of the bricks is visible.
6.3.3.1.3.3 Recessed pointing
Recessedpointing is done by pressing the mortar back from the edges by 5 mm or more. The face of pointing
is kept vertical, by a suitable tool. The pointing gives very good appearance in face-work for good textured
bricks and good quality of mortar.
6.3.3.1.3.4 Concave pointing (keyed pointing)
It is formed by a round jointer. This type of joint gives a very attractive appearanceto the brickwork.
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6.3.3.1.3.5 V~pointing
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It is made in a manner similar to the one described above, by forming V -groove in the flush- finishingface,
6.3.3.1.3.6 Projecting Pointing
This is the special type of pointing formed by a suitable slighted steel rod. Such types of pointing give good
appearance,but are liable to damage easily.
A concave and struck pointing ensure good water tightness. Recessedand stripped joints are expensive and are
not fully watertight. Joints in the exterior faces of walls should be entirely filled with mortar to reduce water
penetration. It is essential that the joints are made smooth and dense by exerting considerable pressure on the
tool with which they are made.
6.3.3.1.4 Reinforced brickwork
Plain brickwork cannot take tensile stressesas the bricks get pulled apart at the mortar joints. Reinforced
concrete is a structural material, which can be put to all type of uses, but owing to its high cost, it is not
economical to use it for members, which carry a small load and yet cannot be made of plain brickwork. To
increase the load carrying capacity of plain brickwork, steel reinforcement is introduced between the mortar
joints. This type of brickwork can withstand tensile and shear stressesif the loads are not unduly great.
6.3.3.1.4.1 Types of Reinforced Brickwork
i. Reinforcement may consist of iron bars of expanded metal mesh. Standard patented expanded metal
meshes are available in different widths and different gauges. This metal is available in coils, which
can be spread while the brickwork is being laid. Mortar is evenly spread on the brickwork and the
expanding metal is spread on it. The next course of bricks is laid over it. Usually, the metal mesh is
provided at every third course. Figure 6.4 shows steel mesh reinforcement in wall.

Figure 6.4 Steel mesh reinforcement in walls

ii. Another type of reinforcement, which is used for walls, is hoop iron. These are steel flats about 2.5 to 3
cm in width and are from 1.5 to 2.5 mm in thickness. These flats are dipped in molten tar to increase
their resistance against rusting and are immediately sanded so as to increase the grip with the mortar.
Generally, two strips of hoop iron are used for header brick and one hoop iron for stretcher brick, and
~i:'J~" every sixth course is reinforced. The points at the comers are hooked as shown in Fig 6.5
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iii. Another form of reinforcement employed for walls which have to withstand pressure e.g. retaining
walls, is the placing of vertical reinforcement passing through opening made in special types of bricks.
These bricks may have one or two holes extending to the required level. Vertical mild-steel bars are
then placed in the holes, as shown typically in Fig. 6.6.

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Figure 6.6 Vertical reinforcement in walls.

In all types reinforced brick work it is essential to embed the steel reinforcement in rich cement mortar with
proper cover so that reinforcement is not corroded. Corrosion will result in expansion of the point and
subsequentcracking. The bricks should also be of high quality, Possessinghigh compressive strength so that
optimum use is made of all material.
6.3.3.1.5 Causes of failure of brick masonry
Brick masomy may fail due to the following causes: by crushing, if it is overloaded; by shearing along any
horizontal plane or by rupture along a vertical joint under vertical loads. Care against crushing can be taken by
providing adequate dimensions, Shearing along any horizontal Plane is prevented by providing a strong
mortar. Rupture along a vertical plane is avoided by breaking vertical joints in brickwork.
6.3.3.1.6 Maintenance of brickwork
~ a) Re-pointing old brickwork: This may be needed to improve the appearanceof an old brickwork and
,. make it water tight. Mortar gets lost due to rain, wind, beat, freezing, etc. Before re-pointing old brick
work, the joint of the old mortar has to be cleaned to a depth of at least 3 cm. The old mortar can be
loos~ned width a small hammer and scraped out with brushes to leave the surface clean. The joint may ,..

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I be wetted before the application of mortar. The new mortar is then applied to the joints with special
tools.
b) Re-painting brickwork: Repainting is necessary for walls, which have been previously painted as the
bricks get spalled. The type of color and the paint to be used depends on the treatment already given.
c) Cleaning brickwork: Brickwork can be cleaned with steam or steam and hot water jets.
d) Removal of efflorescence: Efflorescence is the whitish crystalline substance, which appears on the
surface of walls due to the presence of salts in lime, cement, sand, bricks and sometimes even in water
used in the construction work.' When a newly constructed wall dries out, the soluble salts dissolved by
moisture are drawn to the surface through the pores. These soluble salts absorb moisture from
atmosphere and on drying; they get deposited in patches of white crystalline substance as shown in
Fig. 6.7. The surface gets disfigured by ugly damp patches of efflorescence.
Efflorescence can be removed by scrubbing the wall with water and a stiff brush. If this is not
successful, a 10% solution of muratic acid may be used instead of water. However the wall should be
rinsed clear with water or a weak ammonia solution immediately after the treatment.

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6.3.3.2 Stone walls

It should be noted that stone walls can stand compressive loads only. Cracks in the walls are often caused by
tensile or shearing stresses,which cannot be absorbed by the wall.
Before using a stone in a building, the following defects should be checked.
i. Vents: These are small figures or hollows in the stone, which render it liable to decomposition.
ii. Shakes: These are minute cracks containing calcite, which form hard veins.. As the stone weather,
these veins being stronger, project beyond the surface of the stone and render it a bad appearance.
iii. Sand holes and clay holes: These are cracks or holes filled with sandy or clayey matter. They are
liable to decomposition when subjected to weathering action.
6.3.3.2.1 Cutting and dressing of stones
Stones found in nature have to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large pieces of stones, it is
essential to break them into smaller sizes so that they can be used in a building. They are also dressed into
suitable $hapesand polished to give a smooth surface if desired. ,.

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6.3.3.2.2 Stone masonry wall
There is a wide choice of natural stone suitable for walling including igneous rocks (e.g. basalt, trachyte) and
sedimentary rock (e.g. sandstone, limestone). Aesthetic consideration will often play an, important part in
deciding the stone to be used in a particular building. For instance basalt is used for walls which may be
exposed to moisture, such as in foundation wall. Sandstoneand limestone are usually employed for all kinds
of walls above ground level.
In considering a masonry wall, it is important to ensure that the mass will act as much as possible as a unit,
and consequently the mortar used for bedding should be carefully chosen to be compatible in strength and
porosity with the type of stone employed.
6.3.3.2.3 Maintenance of stone work
1) Remove efflorescence using steel brush, water jets, etc.
2) Remove stains by rubbing; rinsing with chemicals, etc.
3) Repair of cracks: repair after the settlement causing the crack has ceased.
4) Improve water proofing: colorless water-proofing painting materials can keep the masonry free from
damp.
6.3.3.3 Block walls
Various types of blocks are used for wall construction. These blocks, which can be of concrete, clay or other
materials may be finished by a water proof rendering in order to provide a satisfactory external appearance.
The advantage of using blocks is that by using units larger than bricks, the amount of mortar necessary for
fitting the joints is greatly I reduced. For instance, in common brick masonry works, the amount of mortar
required is estimated to be 1/3 of the total volume of the wall. When using larger size blocks, for instance
20x20x40 cm blocks, the quantity of mortar required is only 5-10% of the total wall volume.
Blocks are generally economical to buy and economical from workmanship point of view. i For example, a
single laborer might work more areas than he could work on brick. The block may be either solid or hollow. A
block wall surface may be finished either by painting or some other method of plastering in the same way as
stone or brick walls. The finishing material to be chosen depends on the kind of surface of the blocks as well
as on climatic conditions.
6.3.4 Walls of monolithic construction
Walls of monolithic construction could either be load bearing or not. The modem concrete wall and the
primitive mud wall are composed of materials, which are placed in a plastic state into a mold. When the
material is set, the mold is removed, leaving a monolithic wall.
Concrete walls can be plain or reinforced. The two great advantagesof concrete walls are its strength and the
freedom it gives in design. Thin section of reinforced concrete wall can carry comparatively high loads. For
example a reinforced concrete wall of 15 cm thick will take the loads from a building several storeys in height.
Freedom of design is expressed by the ease with which it can be made to take up curved or other complex
shapes.Because concrete walls are generally thin section they require heat- insulation in area of cold climate,
like in North Europe. Because not only they are generally thin but also because of the inferior heat and cold
insulating properties of the concrete, and the insulation procedures involved, concrete walls are both expensive
and not easyto carry out in such areas. Reinforced concrete wall thickness may be from 8 cm up, and the cost
is generally higher than for a stone wall but the strength of the structure is considerably higher.
6.3.5 Panel or composite walls
Panel walls are used wherever the load bearing function of the wall are takeJ! over by a framework, which
leaves the spaces in between the uprights to be filled. Various types of composite walls have been designed for
use in framed structures, principally with the object of reducing weight. Generally they consist of two or more
layers or sections each of which fulfills a specific purpose. There are for instance, those, which consists of
sheeting (panel) Supported on a light sub-frame, which may span vertically from floor to floor, or horizontally,.
from post-to-post, across the opening in the main fame.
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Some of the requirements, which would be fulfilled by composite walls, are resistance to wind pressure;
protection against wind and rain and providing satisfactory appearance.Thermal insulation and interior finish
are generally given by an inner lining quite independentof the outside skin. .
Unlike brickwork or masonry, panel walls have no intrinsic or characteristic performance, but are infInitely
variable. By the appropriate choice and design of its different elements, the composite wall can be made to
have any required combination of properties within wide limits.
The architectural character of a wall of framed construction is very different from that of a \if wall built of
brickwork or masonry. The dominant feature of the panel wall is the pattern set up by the framing; while a
wall of brick or masonry, on the other hand, is essentially a mass, pierced here and there by openings. They
may consist of stiff sheet materials such as plywood or weather board fixed to timber or other frames, or to a
continuous core material such as a foamed plastic.
6.4 Internal Walls
The function of the internal wall is to separate the internal spaces within a building into separate rooms.
Sometimes the internal walls are also used to give support to th- floors 1 above, or to the roof. Such walls are
load bearing and fonn part of the structural system of the building. Walls which are not load~bearing and
whose sole function is the division of spaceare sometimes called partitions.
6.4.1 Partition walls
Partition walls are thin internal walls whose main function is to divide the space within a building into rooms
or areas. These can be load-bearing or non load-bearing but with the sole j purpose of division with strength
and stability, sound insulation and fire resistance. I
The various types of non load-bearing partitions include brick partitions; hollow clay block partitions; glass
~artitions; ~?ncrete partitions; metal lath partitions; solid plaster partitions; corrugated sheet partitions and ~.
tImber partItIons. .:
6.4.2 Types of internal wall
As mentioned in the previous section, internal walls can be load bearing or non-load bearing. Load bearing
walls are nearly always constructed of bricks or blocks of concrete. They generally fulfill the sound-proof and
fire proof requirements. Non-load bearing internal walls are generally of the panel type.
For a load bearing internal wall, strength is, of course, an important factor in design; a partition, on the other
hand, need only be strong enough to support itself under normal I conditions of service. Weather exclusion
and thermal insulation do not arise as criteria in the design of internal wall. Instead sound insulation and fire
resistance are important requirements. An internal wall separating two adjoining spaces must often provide a
barrier to the passageof sound from one to another.
6.5 Cavity Walls
A cavity wall consists of two separatewalls called leaves or skins of brickwork with a cavity in between and
connected together by metal ties or special bonding bricks. This type of construction is ideally suitable for
places where prevention of dampness from exterior, high insulating value against heat and sound and economy
are desired.
The two leaves of a cavity wall may be of equal thickness if it is a non-load-bearing wall or the thickness of
the inner leaf may be increased to meet the desired structural requirements. The inner and outer leaves of the
wall should not be less than 10 cm in thickness throughout the height of the wall.
For a cavity wall to be effective, it is absolutely essential that the inner leaf is entirely disconnected from the
outer leaf, except for ties. The cavity varies from 4-10 cm. The inner and outer leaves of the wall are securely
tied together with suitable bonding ties of adequatestrength. Strong non-corrode able ties of wrought iron or
mild steel thoroughly galvanized, dipped in hot tar and sandedare used. Copper or bronze metal ties are used
whenever excessive corrosion is anticipated. These ties should be placed at intervals not exceeding 1 m
horizontally and 40 cm vertically. Special bonding bricks of terracotta are also sometimes used as ties. A
cavity wall is built with an outer facing of specially selected face brick and the inner leaf is made of common '"
.bricks. The ties are placed wherever the Joints coincide. .
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The cavity wall may extend down to the concrete foundation, which means that water in the soil can pass into
the inner face of the wall wherever the brickwork in the exterior wall is not constructed properly. This would
cause dampness in the floor. To prevent this, the cavity is taken only about 10 cm below the damp proof
course of the external wall and below that the wall is built of a solid section. Typical vertical sections of brick
cavity wall are shown in Fig. 6- 7-
Whenever wooden floors are used along with the cavity walls, it is essential to use only sound and seasoned
timber otherwise dampness from the cavity may causedry rot.
The following points about the cavity walls should be noted: ff,:-
1. The horizontal damp proof course should be built in two separatewidths under each leaf of the wall
and divided by cavity.
2. During construction, no mortar or any other thing should get accumulated in the cavity.
3. The cavity should be free from any projections.
4, The contact between the inner and outer wall should be least, I J':
5. Whenever openings are provided in the wall, e.g. for windows and doors, heads of J openings should
be carefully attended to for damp prevention.
6. Ties must be of rust proof materials and should be able to prevent transmission of water from inner
face to the outer face.
6.5.1 Advantages of cavity walls
i. Damp prevention: A cavity wall prevents dampness in a better manner than an equivalent brick
wall for instance a 20 cm solid brick wall will not prevent, dampness but 10 cm inner and outer
leaves and 6 cm cavity ill betweenwill be able to prevent dampnesseffectively.
ii. Insulation: Air being a bad conductor of heat, a cavity wall reduced the heat transmission from
external to internal faces or vice-verse. Thus the room will be warmer in winter and cooler in
summer.

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6.6 Openings in Walls

Openings are invariably left in the walls for the provision of doors, windows, cupboards, etc. These openin1
are bridged by the provisions of either a lintel or an arch. Thus both lintels as well as arch are structur
members designed to support the loads of the portion of the wall situated above the openings. The ancie]
Greek used post and lintel construction to erect many of their outstanding structures. Stone was used as tl
primary building materials, therefore its great weight and its weakness in flexural strength considerab
limited the application of post and lintel construction.
6.6.1 Arch
An arch is normally a curved member composing of a mechanical arrangementof wedge shapedbuilding uni
upholding each other by mutual pressure of their own weight and, maintained in equilibrium by reaction fOf]
supports called abutment. However, arches of steel or reinforced concrete are built in single units of rig:
nature, with out the use of wedge shapedunits. Bricks or masonry arches may be flat.
Figure6.8shows typical elements of an arch and the following technical terms are used in arch work.
Intrados: This is the inner curve of an arch.
Soffit: It is the inner surface of an arch. Sometimes, intrados and soffit are used synonymously.
Extrados.. It is the outer curve of an arc~. } I

Voussoirs: These are wedge shapedunits of masonry, forming an arch.

Crown: It is the highest part of extrados.
Key: It is the wedge shaped unit fixed at the crown of the arch.
Spandl:jl: This is a curved-triangular space formed between the extrados and the horizontal line through tl ,.

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Skew back: This is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment, which is so prepared to receive the arch
and from which the arch springs.
Springing points: These are the points from which the curve of the arch springs.
Springing line: It is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end.
Springer: It is the first voussoir at springing level; it is immediately adjacent to the skewback.
Abutment: This is the end support of an arch.
Pier: This is an intermediate support of an arcade.
Arcade: It is a row of arches in continuation.
Haunch: It is the lower half of the arch betweenthe crown and skew back.
Ring: It is a circular course forming an arch. An arch may be made of one ring or more than one ring. ~:
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Impost: It is the projecting course at the upper part of a pier or abutment to stressthe springing line.
Bedjoints: These are the joints between the voussoirs, which radiate from the center.
Centre or striking point: This is the geometrical centre point from where the arcs forming the extrados, arch
rings and intrados are described or struck.
Span: It is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.
Rise: It is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and the springing line.
Depth or height: It is the perpendic~ar distance between the intrados and extrados.
Thickness (or breadth of soffit): This is the horizontal distance, measured perpendicular to the front and back
faces of an arch.
Arches are constructed where loads are heavy, span is large, strong abutments are available and architectural
of bricks, stone, or reinforced concrete appearanceis required, They could be made overall from reinforced
concrete, Arches can be cast in-situ or are also available in precast units, Typical pre-cast arch lintel is shown
in Fig, 6,9,

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6.6.1.1 Stability of arches

An archtransmitsthe super-imposedload to the sidewalls throughfunction betweenthe surfacesof voussoirs
and the cohesionof mortar. Every elementof archesremainsin compressionand hasto beartransverseshear.
An archthereforemay fail in the following ways:
1) The crushingof the material
2) The sliding of one voussoiron another .
3) Rotationof somejoint aboutan edge
4) Unevensettlementof abutments/pier
If the compressivestressor thrust exceedsthe safecrushingstrengthof the materials(i.e., masonryunits and
mortar)the archwill fail in crushing.Hence,the materialusedfor constructionshouldbe of adequatestrength,
andthe size
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should be provided. The angle between the line of resistanceof the arch and the normal to any point should be
less than angle of internal friction, Rotation can be prevented if the line of resistance is kept within intrados
and extrados, The line of thrust should be within the middle third of the arch height,
Uneven settlement of abutment may cause secondary stressesin the arch. Therefore, the abutment, which has
to bear all the loads transferred to it through the arch, should be strong enough. The arch should be
symmetrical so that unequal settlement of the two abutments is minimized; Arches are not preferred these days
for bridging openings over doors and windows of a building, because they require strong abutments (wall) to
withstand the arch thrust. Instead lintels are commonly built to span the openings and they support the super
imposed load by beam action.
6.6.2 Lintels
A lintel is a horizontal member, which is placed across the opening. Lintels are easy to build and the
supporting walls need not be very strong. However, a proper bearing for lintel ends is very necessary. At least
10 cm length of bearing is a minimum. If the span of the lintel exceeds 1.2 m the end bearing should have a
minimum of 15 cm. For very long spans,the bearing for the lintel end should equal at least to its depth.
6.6.2.1 Types of lintel
Lintels are classified according to the materials of their construction. ",*
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a) Timber lintels: Timber lintels are the oldest type of lintels and are not commonly used nowadays. They ~
cannot take greater load and are vulnerable to fire. Timber lintels are costly wherever timber is not ;;;;:
available and subject to decay if not properly ventilated.
b) Stone lintels: Stone lintels are not widely used, as the type of stone needed for this work is not available at
all places. Dressed stone lintels give good architectural appearance. Stone is very weak in tension and
cracks if subjected to vibratory loads. Hence stone lintels should be used with caution where shock waves
are quite common.
c) Brick lintels: Plain brick lintels are not structurally strong and they are not used in large openings and where
loads are heavy. Instead, reinforced brick lintels are used where loads are heavy and/or span is more.
d) Steel lintels: Steel lintels are provided where the opening is large and where the super imposed loads are
also heavy. When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with stone facing so
as to increase its width to match with the width of the wall.
e) Reinforced concrete lintels: Reinforced concrete lintels have replaced practically all other types of lintels
because of their strength, rigidity, fife resistance, economy 'and ease in construction. Reinforced concrete
lintels can be used on any span and they may be cast in place or are also available as precastunits.
6.7 Wood and Chika Wall
Wood and chika wall is a traditional type of wall construction in Ethiopia. It is traditionally carried out as
follows: before the house is erected the ground is usually prepared to obtain a level building site. A trench for
the foundation wall, about 30 cm wide and 50 cm deep, is then dug. Studs are then placed in the trench and
secured by stone and soil. Horizontal walling are nailed at three places, at the top, middle and bottom of the
studs. In between the walling some diagonals walling are fastened and the spaceis then filled with split timber
which is tied by means of grass-rope, bark wicker, etc.
Spaces are left for doors and windows by means of a header between the studs. Then earth mortar is applied
from inside, and then from outside at an internal of 10-15 days. According to old practice, all timbers are ~
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placed vertically and horizontally. This gives low resistance against horizontal forces. A better system is, '!
therefore, to attach the vertical poles to the diagonal ones -inclined in one direction on the outside and in the
opposite on the inner side. The space in between is filled with timber and chika mortar applied in several
layers.
A best kind of chika mortar that can be obtained is made from tennite hill, which is therefore recommended to
be used where available. In a proper wood and chika wall, the external wall should not be joined to the
foundation in the way that is locally customary at present for many reasons, primarily becausethere is a risk '"
that the walfpoles will start to decay inside and above the foundation. Where termites occur, there is a chance
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, Chapter 7 a ~M ...:
Stairs
7.1 Introduction
Stairs are sets of steps leading from one floor to another and are provided in a building to afford a means of
communication between the various floors. Steps arranged in series and placed in an enclosure is called
staircase. Stair should be designed properly to provide proper ventilation and lighting. In public building it
should be located near the main entrance and in residential building it should be placed carefully so as to
provide easy accessfor all the rooms and to maintain privacy at the sametime.
7.2 Technical Terminologies
Typical section of a stair with its components are shown in Fig. 7.1 and the common technical terms
associated with the design and construction of stairs are discussedbelow.-
a) Tread is the horizontal member of a stair. The tread of public buildings must be wide enough to
provide safe footing.
b) Going is the horizontal distance between the nosing or front edge of two consecutive steps. It. is
usually 30 cm for public buildings so that it is wide enough to provide safe footings. ,
c) Riser is the vertical member of a stair.
d) Rise is the vertical distance between the upper surfaces of two consecutive steps. The, rise of public
building is about 15 cm, while a higher value can be used for private
e) Landing is a platform between two flights.
f) Flight is a continuous set of steps between floors and/or landing.
g) Baluster is a vertical member which supports the hand rail. The combined framework of hand rail
and baluster is known as balustrade.
h) Strings or Stringer is structural member which supports the steps and act as inclined beams.
i) Hand rail is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal fixed on the top of .f balusters.
j) Head room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance betweenthe tread and overhead structure. J
k) Newel post: Newel post is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect the ends
of strings and handrail.
7.3 classifications of Stairs:
Generally stairs are of the following types and are shown in Fig. 7 .2. :
a) Straight flight stair: In this type, the stairs continue throughout their entire length in a direction
only. This may consist of a single flight or a flight with one or two landings in between.
b) Quarter turn stair: A quarter turn stair is a stair type which changes the direction of the flight at
right angles either. to the left or to the right. At the quarter turn, there may either quarter space
landing or there may be winders.
c) Half turn stair: Half turn stair is the one which has the direction of its flight reversed
d) Bifurcating stairs are commonly used in public buildings at their entrance hell. The stair has a
wider flight at the bottom which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the
other to the right, at the landing~
e) Geometrical or continuous stairs: In_this type of stairs, the strings and hand-rails are continuous and
are set out in accordance with geometrical principles. Continuous stairs, do not normally have any
landing and they may be of circular, spiral or helical stairs.
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7.4 Materials
The selection of materials for the construction of stairs depends upon the availability of materials, funds
available, desired life of the building, aesthetical importance and expected fire resisting quality. Thus stairs
may be made either of timber, bricks, stones, mild steel wrought iron or plain and reinforced concrete. A
combination of two or more of these materials may be used in the same stair.
7.4.1 Concrete Stairs
Reinforced concrete stairs are most widely used for residential, public and industrial buildings. They are
strong, durable, can take any desired shape and have good fire resisting capacity. In addition, it is less noisy, it
can be kept clean and it may have more attracting appearanceif suitable finishes are used. Reinforced concrete
stair can be cast-in-situ or prefabricated. There are mainly two types of concrete stairs: stairs spanning
transversely and stairs spanning longitudinally.
7.4.2 Wooden stairs
Wooden stairs are light in weight and easyto construct, but they have very poor fire resistance. Wooden stairs
are normally used for small size residential buildings. The timber to be used for the construction of stairs
should be well treated before use.
7.4.3 Metal stairs
Metal stairs are mainly used as emergency exits. Metal stairs make lot of noise and can be built in a smaller
area. Spiral stairs are mainly made of metal.
7.4.4 Stone stairs
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Stone stairs are strong and rigid and are widely used at the main entrance of public buildings. Stones for such
stairs should be dressed and properly bounded to each other. Stone stairs are however very heavy and
therefore difficult to transport.
7.4.5 Brick stairs
Similar to stone stairs, brick stairs are used at the entrance of a building. Special quality of bricks should be
used for the construction of stairs. Brick steps may be plastered or pointed at all the joints. If properly made,
brick stairs are durable, have good aesthetic value, but requires frequent maintenance.
The advantages and disadvantages of each type of stair has to be evaluated based on their weight, fire-
resistance, sound insulation, aesthetic merit, freedom of design, easeI of transportation and cost.
7.5 Essential Requirements of a Good Stair
The building regulation in UK (1974) requires the following:
1) A stair should be constructed of sound material and workmanship.
2) It's ascent should be relatively easy. Stairs for public buildings should have a pitch of 38° and for
private buildings the pitch should not be more than 42°.
3) All risers and treads should be of uniform height and width, respectively, if I accidents are to be
avoided.
4) The stair case must be adequately lit specially at turn.
5) The maximum number of steps in a flight is preferably 12 but should not be more" "'" than 15.

6) To ensure quick exit in case of emergency, the stair should be wide enough, .especially in public
buildings. A narrow stair may make it impossible to convey large furniture upstairs.
7) Adequate headroom of at least 2 m should be used.

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Figure 7.1 Typical stair aI.1dits components.:I

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7.5.1 Stepproportions
It is very essential that the design oithe steps should be carefully worked out so as not to make the steps either
too wide or too short. Further the rise should not be excessive which otherwise would cause inconvenience to
the user. The following rules may be generally followed:
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i. Rise + Tread >= 40 and=< 45 cm
ii. 2 Rise + Tread >=58 and =< 63 cm
iii. Rise x Tread >= 400 and=<s 500 cm2 "
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b) For large buildings a rise =<18 cm and tread >= 27 cm is satisfactory. For ordinary buildings slightly
greater rise and slightly less tread is permitted. However, Rise> 20 cm and Tread < 22 cm should not
be used.
c) Width of stairs should be adequatefor the number of people who are expected to use them. A stairs
width of 0.8-1 m is recommendedfor residential buildings while 1.5 m wide stairfor public buildings is
considered essential.
d) The slope of the stairs should never be greater than 400 and not less than 200 to prevent under exertion
or wastage of space.
e) All the risers and trades should be of uniform dimensions.
f) The stairs should be well lighted specially at turns.
g) Generally the number of steps in a flight should not be > 12
h) Sufficient head room should be provided for people to move up and down stairs without knocking their
heads. The clear height should not be less than 2m [2.10m is recommended].
i) Handrails -For public buildings the minimum height for hand rail is 90 cm from the floor for horizontal
hand rails and 80 cm for racking hand rails measured vertically from the nosing. ..
The draft National Building Code of Ethiopia (NBCE, 1995) provides important information regarding stair
dimensions, width of stairs, length of stairs, ramps, handrail, etc.

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Chapter 8 /1.
Doors and Windows
8.1 Introduction
A door is an open able barrier secured in a wall opening and is provided to give access,protection, safety and
privacy to the inside of a room of a building. A door serves as a connecting link between the various internal
portions of a building. A window is a vented barrier secured in a wall opening. Its main function is to admit
light and air to the building and to give a view to the outside.
8.2 Doors
Since doors are provided to give an accessto the inside of the room of a building, they should be so located
that freedom of movement in and out of the room is ensured keeping in view the maximum use of
accommodation in the room and privacy of occupants. The number of doors in a room should be kept
minimum, due to the fact that large number of doors cause obstruction and consume more area in circulation.
The location of a door should meet the functional requirement of a room. It should be located in the center of
the length of a wall. A door should preferably be placed in the corner of the room about_nearly20 cm away
from the corner. In case a room has more than one door, they preferably are to be located in the opposite wall
of the room and should face each other. This would provide a good ventilation and also create a least
interference with the inside arrangement of the room. Exterior doors must be of weather resisting and must
exclude wind and rain. Interior doors should provide sound insulation and should withstand a certain amount
or force in order to prevent unauthorized access.
8.2.1 Hanging of doors
a) Doors shall be so hung and arranged that when opened, they shall not in any way diminish or obstruct
the required width of passageway, stair or other means of exit.
b) Buildings constructed facing streets should have door opening outside (i.e. towards the street).
It is generally recommended that exit doors leading from rooms occupied by 15 persons or more shall be hung
to swing in the direction of exit. Similarly no exit door shall open immediately on a flight of stairs, but a
landing the length and width of which are not less than the width of such door shall be provided between the
door and the stair. No riser should be located within 30 cm of an exit door.
8.2.2 Materials
Materials for the construction of doors include wood, glass, plywood, plastics, metals and various
combinations of these materials. Wooden doors may be made of so.lid planks or built up of small individual
pieces. It can take a good polish and can be given different type of molding to produce an attractive
appearance. Wooden doors are easily attacked by vermin especially when in contact with walls built of mud
masonry. Plywood is very useful for doors which have to be made flush, especially for internal walls. Wooden
doors may be either hollow-core or solid-core construction. Solid-core doors are used as exterior doors, in
location where extremely heavy service in anticipated. Hollow-core doors are used only for interior
application.~
Glass is used in panels of doors to admit light. Colored glass, frosted glass and beaded glass can be used for
ornamental appearance. Steel framed doors are mainly used in external doors for residential buildings and
could be used as internal doors in offices, especially where the major part is glass.
8.2.3 General types of door movements
a) Swinging doors; the most common type of door movement is the swinging door as either right hand or
left hand, depending on which side is hinged, as shown in Fig. 8.1. Swinging doors may be hinged at
the side to open and shut in one direction (single swings) or they may be double acting doors, which

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swing in both ways (double swinging).

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b) Sliding doors: The shutter slide upward, downward or side ways. The shutter slides on the sides with
the help of runners and guide rails. The door may have one, two or even three shutters, depending upon
the size of the opening and spaceavailable on sides for sliding. ,
c) Rolling shutter doors: Rolling shutter door is an improvement of the sliding doors. They are generally
made of steel and have the advantage of easy opening and closing. They do not require much space
and are especially useful for garagesor shops where large openings have to be provided.
d) Revolving doors: Resolving doors are provided in public buildings such as museums, libraries, hotel,
bank, etc. where there are constant visitors. Such a door provides entrance to one and exit to the other
person(s) simultaneously and closes automatically when not in use. Revolving doors are suitable for
air-conditioned buildings or for buildings situated at a place where strong breeze blow throug40ut the
year, since the door is so designed that it excludes the wind draught. Revolving doors consist of a
centrally placed mullion to which far radiating shuttersare attached,
e) Folding doors: Folding doors may be of wood or metal and are used for large openings.
f) Collapsible doors: Collapsible doors are made of light steel sections, mostly channels, They roll in
small channels fixed at top and bottom wherein small rollers have been kept. Collapsible steel doors ,..

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are used in public buildings such as shops and banks, for providing increased safety and protection to
property. The doors neither require hinges for opening and closing, nor any frame for hanging them. It
acts like a steel curtain which can be opened or closed by horizontal push. Collapsible doors are
provided with handle and locking arrangements.
8.2.4 Size of doors
The size of a door should be such that it would allow the movement of object or persons likely to use the door.
As a rule, the height of a door should not be less then 1.8 m. Similarly the width of the door is determined on
the intended use of the building. Typical sizes of doors for residential buildings are summarized as follows:
i) External door: 0.90-1.20 m width and 2-2.10 m height
ii) Internal door: 0.80-0.90 m width and 2-2.10 m height
iii) Bath room and W.C.: 0.70-0.80 m width and 2-2.10 m height
Doors widths of public building, such as schools, hospitals etc. are generally higher than residential building.
For instance the minimum width and height of garage doors is 2.5m. Internal doors of residential buildings
usually should not be less u'1an0.9m in width and 2.0m in height. Bath room doors can be 0.75m in width and
2m height.
8.2.5 Door frames
A door frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members forming an enclosure to which door shutters
are fixed. The vertical members, one at each side, are known as posts, while the horizontal top member
connecting the posts is called head.
Doors are of three to their method of constructions: panel type, Flush type, and French type and are shown
typically in Fig. 8.2.
Door frames are made of timber, steel section, aluminum section, concrete and stone. The choice

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Figure 8.2 Typical types of doors.

of material for door frames depend on economy, required aesthetic quality, material availability, functional
requirement and durability. In this regard timber frames are more commonly used for residential buildings due
to architectural requirements and cost effectiveness in some areas. Aluminum frames are more expensive,
however, they are beneficial and used where aesthetic requirements govern.
Timber frames can be polished where desired. The width of timber frames vary from 100- 150mm, depending
on the thickness of the adjacent walls. Where timber door frame is to be used, the brick or masonry wall is

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grooved at 2 or 3 places in both sides and woodenplugs are embeddedin the masonry, with their er
flushing with the faceof the opening.The doorframeis laternailed or shelvedto thesewoodenplugs.
Steel door frames can be made of single iron, double angle iron or T -sections.Similar to woodenfram
chasesare cut in brick masonryto accommodatehold joists which are welded to the frame.The cuts are tl
groutedwith cementmortar.
A 1.25 cm clearancemay be kept betweenthe door and the flooring so that the bottom of the door clears
any carpetor otherfurnishing laid on the floor.
8.3 Windows
The location of a window should meet the functional requirementsof a room, such as interior decoratit
arrangementfurniture, fresh air supply, distribution of day light etc. The patternof air movementinsidc
room dependsto a large extent on the angle at which air entersand leavesthe room. It is desirablethat.
movementof air is downwardsand acrossa room for properventilation. This meansthat windows should
located in opposite wall, facing a door or anotherwindow, so that cross-ventilationis achieved.Wido
shouldprovide insulationagainstheatloss,and againstsoundin somecases.
Widows sills shouldbe locatedabout80 cm abovethe floor level of a room. The sizeand numberof windo
are decided on the basis of control of ventilation, architecturalrequirement,distribution and control of c
light and privacy of occupants.However, guidanceon the minimum size and numberof windows can
obtainedfrom relevantcodeof practices.
The minimum breadthand areaof window spaceasrelatedto the inside contentof the room andthe minim!
glassareaare amongthe importanttips given in the codeof practicesfor the designsof windows.
8.3.1 Materials
Materialsusedfor the constructionof windowsincludewood, glass,plywood andmetals.Aluminum and st
framings are mostly used for window making. Bronze, stainlesssteel and galvanizedsteel are also used
specifictype of buildings.
Frame is a group of membersassembledand placedalong the top, bottom and sidesof an openingso as
form an enclosureand a supportfor a door or a window shutter.Typical frame of a window and its sectic
are shown in Fig. 8.3. Some of the importanttechnicalterms applied to doors and windows are discus~
below.
Mullion: It is a vertical memberof a frame which is employedto sub-dividea window or a doorvertically.
Transome: It is a horizontal member of a frame which is employed to subdivide a window operu
~orizontally.
Sill: It is the lower most or bottomhorizontalpart of a window frame. Sills are normally provided in doors.
Head: It is the top or uppermosthorizontalpart of a frame.
8.3.2Types of window movements
i. Fixed type: This consistof a frameworkin which the panel or glassis fixed andthe frameworkCall]
move
ii. Openingoutside:The shutteropenstowardsoutsideof the building.
iii. Openinginside: The shutteropenstowardsinsideof the building. I
iv. Tophinged: The shutteris hinged at the top andcanbe movedoutsideorinside
v. Bottomhinged: The shutteris,hinged at the bottomand canbe movedinside or outside.
vi. Pivoted: Thesewindow shuttersrotate abouta pivot which may be fixed at the window frame. 1
windows canthenrotatehorizontallyor vertically dependinguponthe positionsof the pivot.
vii. Sliding: The shuttercan moveinsidethe walls horizontallyor vertically.
viii. Doublehung: One shuttergoesup andthe othermovesdown.
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8.4 Glass and Glazing

Glass is a super cooled liquid, one that is physically solid but uncrystallized, which has sufficient viscosity to
prevent the formation of crystals. It is. a thermoplastic material (it melts) that can be shaped at temperatures
above 1200°C. In its molten state glass is a chemical compound, but if it is held too long in its molten state,
the various.chemicals tend to crystallize. '"
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The various types of glass used in the construction of doors and windows are described below.
a) Plate glass: Plate glass is transparent and flat glass having plain polished surfaces and showing no
distortion when objects through it are viewed at any angle. The thickness of plate glass varies from 3 -
6mm.
b) Clear window glass: Clear window glass is transparent, having plain and smooth surface. However,
small waviness of surface is present which is visible when viewed at an angle. The thickness of clear
window glass varies from 2.5 -7.5 mm.
c) Obscured glass: One side of this glass is patterned while rolling which obscures direct vision but does
not obstruct light. Figured glass or rough cast glass are examples of this types.
d) Processed glass: There are many patterns and some provide the privacy with a uniform diffusion of
light. The primary functions of patterned glassesare the diffusion of light, decoration and privacy. By
means of patterned glass, rooms can be adequately day lighted far from windows. Small sky lights cali
furnish diffused light over a wider area.
e) Wired glass: Rolled flat glass having wire mesh embedded in it is called wired glass. Wired glass
provide safety against breakage and has better fire resistance.
t) Prism glass: This has prism shaped ribs for deflecting light. The prisms with different angles are
available to suit various needs.
g) Active glass: Active glass reduces heat and a large percentageof glare. It also transmits lesser amount
of ultra-violet rays which bleach some colored fabrics.
h) Quartz glass: Quartz glass transmits ultra-violet rays and is used in hospital where maximum benefit
from sun's rays is desired for the health of the patients.
i) Bullet proof glass: Bullet proof glass is made of laminated plate glass which may break under impact
but will not shatter.
j) Tinted and coated glass: The properties of glass can be controlled by adding various metallic, oxides
or by coating one side with metallic films, oxides, or paint. The tints and coatings, will filter light,
conduct electricity, reflect heat and light, reduce the reflection of light or impart brilliant colors and
decorative effects.
8.5 Fittings for Doors and Windows
Generally four types of fixtures and fastenings are required for doors and windows: hinges; bolts; handles and
locks.
8.5.1 Hinges .

A hinge is a device that permits a door, window, or panel to turn or swing. Hinges may be exposed, semi
concealed or concealed. Exposed hinges mounted on the face of the door are called surface, strap or butterfly
hinges. Concealed hinges that consist of one pin extending from the top of the door into the head of the door
frame and another pin extending from the bottom of the door into the still are called pin or pivot hinges.
Hinges installed on the edge of a door between the door and the stile is called butt hinge.
8.5.2 Bolt
Different types of bolts are used for doors and windows. For instance, Aldrop bolt is fixed on external doors
where pad locks are to be used and Barrel bolt is used for fixing back faces of doors. In this type, the socket is
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fixed to the doorframe while the plate is screwed to the inside of the shutter.
8.5.3 Handles
Nowadays, handles are manufactured in a variety of designs and are abundantly available -n j the market to
suit the specific interest of the user.
8.5.4 Locks
Different types of locks can be fitted on doors and windows depending on specific requirements. ,..
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