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Project Report

Introduction to Micro-electromechanical systems

Low-Field Magnetic Sensor with a Variable

Capacitor

Barnabh Chandra Goswami - 19UEC161

Tarun Singh - 19UEC153
Abhay Tiwari - 19UEC157

Instructor: Dr. Gaurav Chatterjee

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

The LNMIIT Jaipur, Rajasthan

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May 03, 2022

Declaration

This report has been prepared based on my work. Where other published and unpublished source
materials have been used, these have been acknowledged.

Student Name Roll Number

Barnabh Chandra Goswami 19UEC161

Tarun Singh 19UEC153

Abhay Tiwari 19UEC157

Date of Submission: 03 / 05 / 2022

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Abstract
As we all know that every element has some kind of magnetic field that is emitted from the object
be it metal or non-metal it's just that field emitted by non-metal are so low that it is practically
undetectable, the magnetic field is emitted due to the movement of electrons in the object even in
the human body or hence we can use the normal conducting wires with current flowing through
them to detect the magnetic field of an object but due to the vastness of the earth’s magnetic field
in comparison all, the magnetic field of others especially non-metallic are practically absent, hence
Low-Field Magnetic Sensors comes into the picture, we are using the concept of scanning the
magnetic property of an object, for example - a micro-machined MRI. For cases like if the object
is at molecular level, in such cases the field will be pretty inhomogeneous (because the source is
very small). Also, the field will drop rapidly with distance from the object. Keep also in mind that
in most cases the moment is unlikely to be thermally stable (it fluctuates thermally) and then so
does the field, and the (time) average (d) reading will be small or zero (on any 'normal' timescale).
In this project we are trying to improve Low-Field magnetic sensor using Giant Magnetoresistance
(GMR) Technology and to design a self sufficient Low-field Magnetic Sensor by embedding a
micro-machined Variable Capacitor which can be used to detect any kind of metallic ore that is
present underground and also to determine the distance of the metal from the sensor using the
various different methods for example - the effect of metals on Variable Capacitor or by observing
the changes in the magnetic field using Wheat-Stone to detect the changes in magnetic field of the
sensor.
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Table Of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................3
Table Of Contents ......................................................................................................4
1. Low-Field Magnetic Sensor ................................................................................6
1.1. Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) ...........................6
1.2. Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) ..................................................................7
2. Very low Molecular Detection using Magnetic Field .........................................9
2.1. Quantum Hall Effect (QHE) .........................................................................9
2.2. Time Reversal Symmetry (TRE).................................................................10
2.3. Quantum Anomalous Hall (QAH) ..............................................................10
3. Micro-Machined Variable Capacitor .................................................................11
3.2. Magnetic Transducer ...................................................................................11
3.3. Basic Principles ...........................................................................................12
Advantages of MEMS based Sensor .......................................................................14
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................15
References ................................................................................................................16
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List Of Figures
Figure 1-1. Diagram of Superconducting Quantum Interference Device .................7

Figure 1-2. Giant Magnetoresistance .........................................................................8

Figure 2-1. Quantum Hall Effect (QHE) using light .................................................9

Figure 3-1. Magnetic Transducer .............................................................................12

Figure 3-2. Schematic Diagram ...............................................................................13

Figure 3-3. Schematic diagram of extraction circuit ...............................................13

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1. Low-Field Magnetic Sensor

Magnetic field sensors play an important role in industries. Magnetic field sensor is used by
consumers in different application like in printer, scanners, flat panels and cameras as well as in
electronic compass. Magnetic field sensors are good to help in study of permanent magnets, coils
and electronic devices. EMI, fields from ferromagnetic objects and earth’s magnetic field are the
large magnetic fields that are used in these applications. Permanent magnets are objects that
produce their own magnetic fields lines. These magnetic field lines have same strength. The main
motive of the study of magnetic field sensors is to study the fields around coils or electrical devices.
The field from sources are localized due to inherent dipole nature of magnetic field sources, that
they decrease with increase cube of distance measure. Low field magnetic fields are very small in
size, less than 1 Oersted where 1 Oe is almost equal to 80 A/m. The sensitive instruments need to
be shield from external magnetic field because the measurement of sensitive instruments is
influenced by external magnetic fields. Small magnetic particles are present in Non-destructive
inspection method to detect crack at surface of ferromagnetic materials, in the black ink present in
currencies and other negotiable documents that are acts as dipole. Dipole is a magnet having two
poles. Eddy current sensing to detect flaws in conducting materials.
Low field sensors consist of SQUID technique. SQUID stands for Superconducting Quantum
Interference Device; it is a type of magnetometer which is very sensitive and is used to measure
extremely subtle magnetic fields.

1.1. Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) is a highly sensitive
magnetometer used to measure hidden magnetic fields, based on superconducting
loops.
SQUIDs are sensitive enough to measure fields as low as 5 x 10-14 T in a few days
of measurement. Their noise levels are as low as 3 fT . Hz- 1⁄2. Compared, a standard
refrigerator produces 0.01 Tesla (10−2 T), while other processes in animals produce
very small magnetic fields between 10-9 T and 10 6 T.
SQUID's extreme sensitivity makes them ideal for biological studies.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG), for example, uses measurements from the
SQUID list to make hypotheses about the function of nerves within the brain.
SQUIDs are used as visual aids to perform Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
imaging. Although high-field MRI uses one to a few Tesla precession fields,
SQUID MRI obtained using measurement fields located within the Micro-Tesla
range.
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Figure 1-1. Diagram of Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

Another low field sensing technique is Spin Resonance. Spin resonance is a technique for
investigating paramagnetic substances. In a solid-state magnetic sensor, the magnetic field is
directly converted to voltage or resistance. Small lithography patterned area is used for sensing
with power requirements. Low field magnetic sensors are important to study the magnetic field
characteristics of low magnetic fields devices such as coil or electronic devices. For sensing low
magnetic fields, Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) is the best way.

1.2. Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR)

Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) is a major shift in electrical resistance caused
by the use of a magnetic field on thin films covered with ferromagnetic layers and
non-magnetic layers. This change in resistance, usually reduction, is related to the
alignment caused by the magnetization field of the magnetic layers. In the first tests,
the film was made up of Fe (ferromagnetic) and Cr (nonmagnetic) layers with an
average size of a few nm and was currently in the film plane. GMR results can also
be obtained with perpendicular current in layers. The origin of GMR is the
dependence of electrical conductivity on ferromagnetic substances on the rotating
state of the carriers (electrons).
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Figure 1-2. Giant Magnetoresistance

The filmed GMR materials deposited on silicon substrate can be configured as a resistor, Half
bridge and Wheatstone bridge. The sheet resistance of thin films is between 10 Ω and 15 Ω per
square. There are four resistances in Wheatstone bridge. To study the low field magnetic fields in
a simplified way, two out of four resistors are connected to the power supply and rest resistors are
connected to the ground on the other side. The other two resistances that remain GMR resistors
exposed to the external field. Spin Dependent Tunneling (SDT) material is used to make
Wheatstone bridge. In this project, we will study more related to Low Magnetic Field Sensors
using GMR.
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2. Very low Molecular Detection using Magnetic

Field
2.1. Quantum Hall Effect (QHE)
The quantum Hall effect (QHE) and its relation to fundamental physical constants
was discovered in 1980 by Klaus von Klitzing for which he received a Nobel prize
in 1985. The Hall resistance RH (Hall voltage divided by applied current) measured
on a two-dimensional charge carrier system at low temperatures (typically at liquid
helium temperature T = 4.2 K) and high magnetic fields (typically several tesla),
which is applied perpendicularly to the plane of the charge carrier system, shows
well-defined constant values for wide magnetic field or charge carrier density
variations. These plateau values are described by (|Rh|=h/(i*e^2)), where h is the
Planck constant, e is the elementary charge, and i an integer value with i = (1, 2, 3,
…). Nowadays, this effect is denoted as integer quantum Hall effect (IQHE) since,
beginning with the year 1982, plateau values have been found in the Hall resistance
of two-dimensional electron systems of higher quality and at lower temperature
which are described by(|Rh|=h/(f*e^2)) , where f is a fractional number. The
fractions f = {1/3, 2/3} are the most prominent ones.

Figure 2-1. Quantum Hall Effect (QHE) using light

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The Integer Quantum Hall Effect (QHE), first observed in the clean two-dimensional electronic
systems at high magnetic fields, is the paradigmatic example of a topological phase. Different
integer QH states are characterized by identical symmetries but different integer topological
quantum numbers η, with the quantized Hall resistance given by Rxy = h/(ηe2). However, Hall
quantization may also occur in the absence of an external field as long as Time Reversal
Symmetry (TRS) is broken.

2.2. Time Reversal Symmetry (TRE)

T-symmetry or time reversal symmetry is the theoretical symmetry of physical laws
under the transformation of time reversal, Since the second law of thermodynamics
states that entropy increases as time flows toward the future, in general, the
macroscopic universe does not show symmetry under time reversal.

2.3. Quantum Anomalous Hall (QAH)

The quantum Hall (QH) effect, quantized Hall resistance combined with zero
longitudinal resistance, is the characteristic experimental fingerprint of Chern
insulators - topologically non-trivial states of two-dimensional matter with broken
time-reversal symmetry. In Chern insulators, non-trivial bulk band topology is
expressed by chiral states that carry current along sample edges without dissipation.
The quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect refers to QH effects that occur in the
absence of external magnetic fields due to spontaneously broken time-reversal
symmetry

This Quantum Anomalous Hall (QAH) state was recently realized experimentally, following
theoretical proposals based on combining strong spin-orbit coupling with long-range
ferromagnetic (FM) order in magnetically doped topological insulators (TIs). The QH plateau
transition represents the canonical example of a topological phase transition, described by the
divergence of the localization length and a universal critical scaling of transport coefficients.
Recent theoretical calculations show that under certain assumptions, the QAH plateau transition
can be mapped onto the same network model used to describe the integer QH plateau transition,
leading to the same scaling laws.
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3. Micro-Machined Variable Capacitor

According to the paper they developed the Variable Capacitor to make the Bio-MEMS devices
self-sufficient because when sensor is inside the body of a living organism it is very troublesome
if it ran out of power and there is no photo-electric energy available inside the body of an organism,
although there is thermal energy available but it is not possible to extract thermal energy using
micro-scaled devices, hence they are using motion as the basis to extract power (converting
mechanical energy in electrical energy) using Variable Capacitor. The idea used here is to use the
changes in the dielectric field between the capacitor with the use of an electrostatic transducer to
convert it into DC voltage. (32 - 200 nF variance in capacitance according to the paper) Here we
will be trying to introduce both electrostatic and magnetic transducer so that capacitor can use
variation in magnetic field to produce electricity and can be used for Non- BIO-MEMS device
such as Low-Field Magnetic Sensor In upcoming paragraphs the basic principle and working of
Variable Capacitor is shown using electrostatic transducer. Variable capacitor using a magnetic
transducer will have the same concept. We will just be replacing a few components to make it
feasible (Work in progress).

3.2. Magnetic Transducer

The magnetic transducers form the first large group of electromechanical
transducers. Electromagnetic, electrodynamic and piezomagnetic transducers
belong to the group of magnetic transducers [1, 2, 22]. In case of an electrodynamic
transducer, a magnetic force — Lorentz force — being proportional to coil current
appears in the air gap between moving coil and fixed yoke. In contrast, in case of a
magnetic transducer, a nonlinear magnetic force appears between armature and
yoke. In order to achieve a linearization, an operating point adjustment by means
of a constant magnetic field or a superimposed direct current is necessary. Also
with the piezomagnetic transducer an operating point adjustment is achieved by a
constant magnetic field or a direct current. Thus, an approximately linear small-
signal behavior is achieved. Here, the connection between magnetic and
mechanical field quantities is described by means of equations of state.
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Figure 3-1. Magnetic Transducer

3.3. Basic Principles

A gold proof mass of 4.3 g, supported on a highly flexible polyimide membrane, is
suspended between a silicon top plate and a quartz base-plate. The very low
mechanical Q prevents accurate measurement of the resonance frequency, but we
estimate it at 10 - 20 Hz. Power generation is achieved in this device by pulling
apart the base plate and the movable plate and then extracting energy stored in the
electric field. During the input phase, the mass is forced against the contact studs
on the base plate, connecting it to a charging circuit that brings it to a starting
potential. In response to motion of the frame, which is attached to the moving
“host” (e.g., person), the mass is accelerated sufficiently in the opposite direction
and moved to the top plate where it is stopped by the contact studs on the top plate.
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Figure 3-2. Schematic Diagram

The energy stored in the capacitor is then extracted. Figure below shows the essential elements of
a basic charging and extraction circuit. During the input phase, transistor Q1 is turned on to transfer
energy from the source B1 into the inductor L1. When Q1 is switched off, this energy is transferred
to the variable capacitor C1 through a half-cycle quasi-resonant action between L1 and C1. During
the output phase, the charge is recovered from the variable capacitor, at a higher voltage, by a
second quasi-resonant action, this time between C1 and L2. This action transfers energy from C1
to L2, and then from L2 back into B1. The pre-charge operation is initiated by the control circuit
while the moving plate is in contact with the Input terminal, with the charge delivered being
governed by the Q1 on-time as set by the control circuit. The extraction operation occurs
automatically when the moving plate makes contact with the Output terminal.

Figure 3-3. Schematic diagram of extraction circuit

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Advantages of MEMS based Sensor

A MEMS-based magnetic field sensor is small, so it can be placed close to the measurement
location and thereby achieve higher spatial resolution than other magnetic field sensors.
Additionally, constructing a MEMS magnetic field sensor does not require the microfabrication of
magnetic material. Therefore, the cost of the sensor can be greatly reduced. Integration of MEMS
sensor and microelectronics can further reduce the size of the entire magnetic field sensing system.
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Conclusions
The magnetic field has changed the proportions and controls in areas where magnetic fields,
generated by biomarkers or electric current, are above that surface of the earth. These robust
devices use both Hall-effect and AMR technology. The Silicon Hall-effect devices, however, did
not succeed in working with fields below 50 Oe. The advent of the effect equipment of AMR and
III-V Hall has been successful in working closely with the world field systems but there have been
some obstacles that hinder the use of widespread distribution. GMR technology has also had
difficulty working < in 0.5 Oe applications and / or micro-Oe variants. It relies on very high
expansion and / or port bias to achieve desired results.
The new GMR technology, Spin-Dependent Tunneling (SDT) now promises to extend the
horizontal atmosphere of low-lying areas to areas previously dominated by very large and power-
hungry devices. This development means that the range of products produced using smaller fields
or very small changes will grow significantly and change the ways in which complex
measurements can be made to date. These developments will take significant time and resources
to complete, but slower changes will soon be seen in new products currently being developed.
Magnetic sensor technology is advanced in sensing small and medium-sized fields.
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References
[1] Low-Field Magnetic Sensing with GMR Sensors (nve.com)

[2] (PDF) Micro-Machined Variable Capacitors for Power Generaton (researchgate.net)

[3] Spin-Dependent Tunneling | Evgeny Tsymbal | Nebraska (unl.edu)

[4] Giant magnetoresistance - Scholarpedia

[5] GMR Low-Field Magnetic Sensors - YouTube

[6] SQUID - Wikipedia