Chap. 17 (2010).
qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:52 PM Page 327
CHAPTER 17
Cold Weather Concreting
Concrete can be placed safely without damage from
freezing in cold climates if certain precautions are taken.
Cold weather is defined by ACI Committee 306 as existing
when the air temperature has fallen to, or is expected to
fall below 4°C (40°F) during the protection period. Under
these circumstances, all materials and equipment needed
for adequate protection and curing must be on hand and
ready for use before concrete placement is started.
During cold weather, the concrete mixture and its temper-
ature should be adapted to the construction procedure
and ambient weather conditions. Preparations should be
made to protect the concrete from excessively low temper-
atures using: enclosures, windbreaks, portable heaters,
insulated forms, and blankets to maintain a suitable con-
crete temperature (Figure 17-1). Concrete must be deliv-
ered at the proper temperature and the temperature of
forms, reinforcing steel, the ground, or other concrete on
which the fresh concrete is cast must also be considered.
Concrete should not be cast on frozen concrete or on
frozen ground. Forms, reinforcing steel, and embedded
Figure 17-1. When suitable preparations to build enclosures and insulate equipment
have been made, cold weather is no obstacle to concrete construction.
327
fixtures must be free of snow and ice at the time concrete
is placed. Thermometers and proper storage facilities for
test cylinders should be available to verify that precau-
tions are adequate.
Effect of Freezing on Fresh Concrete
Concrete gains very little strength at low temperatures.
Freshly mixed concrete must be protected against the
disruptive effects of freezing (Figure 17-2) until the degree
of saturation of the concrete has been sufficiently reduced
by the process of hydration. The time at which this reduc-
tion is accomplished corresponds roughly to the time
required for the concrete to attain a compressive strength
of 3.5 MPa (500 psi) (Powers 1962). At normal tempera-
tures and water-cement ratios less than 0.60, this occurs
within the first 24 hours after placement. Significant ulti-
mate strength reductions, up to about 50%, can occur if
concrete is frozen within a few hours after placement or
before it attains a compressive strength of 3.5 MPa
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 328

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

\ Casting temperature, °F
32 52 72 92
200

Percent initial set at 23°C (73°F)

150

100

50 Mix proportions
held constant.
Cement A Cement B

0
0 10 20 30 40
Casting temperature, °C
Figure 17-2. Closeup view of ice impressions in paste of frozen fresh
concrete. The ice crystal formations occur as unhardened concrete Casting temperature, °F
freezes. They do not occur in adequately hardened concrete. The 32 52 72 92
200
disruption of the paste matrix by freezing can cause reduced strength

Percent final set at 23°C (73°F)

gain and increased porosity.
150
(500 psi) (McNeese 1952). Concrete exposed to deicers
should attain a compressive strength of 35 MPa (4,500 psi)
prior to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing (Klieger 100
1957 and Gebler and Klieger 1986).

Concrete that has been frozen just once at an early age 50 Mix proportions
held constant.
can be restored to nearly normal strength by providing Cement A Cement B
favorable subsequent curing conditions. Such concrete,
however, will not be as resistant to weathering nor as 0
0 10 20 30 40
impermeable. The critical period after which concrete is Casting temperature, °C
not seriously damaged by one or two freezing cycles is
Figure 17-3. Initial set characteristics as a function of casting temper-
dependent upon the concrete ingredients and conditions ature (top), and final set characteristics as a function of casting
of mixing, placing, curing, and subsequent drying. For temperature (bottom) (Burg 1996).
example, air-entrained concrete is less susceptible to dam-
age by early freezing than non-air-entrained concrete. See Casting temperature, °F
32 52 72 92
Chapter 11 for more information on freeze-thaw resistance. 250
Percent slump at 23°C (73°F)

Strength Gain of Concrete at Low Temperatures 200

Temperature affects the rate at which hydration of cement 150

occurs – low temperatures retard hydration and conse-
quently retard the hardening and strength gain of concrete. 100

If hardened concrete is frozen and kept frozen above about Mix proportions
50 held constant.
minus 10°C (14°F), it will still be able to gain strength Cement A Cement B
slowly. However, below that temperature, cement hydra-
tion and concrete strength gain cease. Figure 17-3 illus- 0
0 10 20 30 40
trates the effect of cool temperatures on setting time of Casting temperature, °C
concrete. Figure 17-4 illustrates the effects of casting tem- Figure 17-4. Slump characteristics as a function of casting tempera-
perature on slump. Figures 17-5 and 17-6 show the age- ture (Burg 1996).
compressive strength relationship for concrete that has
been cast and cured at various temperatures. Note in
Heat of Hydration
Figure 17-6 that concrete cast and cured at 4°C (40°F) and
13°C (55°F) had relatively low strengths for the first week;
but after 28 days—when all specimens were moist-cured Concrete generates heat during hardening as a result of
at 23°C (73°F)—strengths for the 4°C (40°F) and 13°C the chemical reaction by which cement reacts with water
(55°F) concretes grew faster than the 23°C (73°F) concrete to form a hard, stable paste. The heat generated is called
and at one year they were slightly higher. heat of hydration; it varies in both amount and rate for

328
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Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting

curing temperature. This is especially true even without

Water to cement ratio = 0.43
Air content: 4 to 5% RH 6 other temporary heat sources, particularly in more mas-
%
40
Cement: Type I, 50 sive elements.
310 kg/m3 (517 lb/yd3)

Compressive strength, 1000 psi

5 Figure 17-7 shows a concrete pedestal being covered with a
Compressive strength, MPa

)
°F
3°
F)

3
(7
tarpaulin just after the concrete was placed. Tarpaulins and

°C
(7
°C
30
insulated blankets are often necessary to retain the heat of
23 23
4
hydration more efficiently and keep the concrete as warm

RH
as possible. Thermometer readings of the concrete’s tem-
RH

50%
20 perature will indicate whether the covering is adequate.
0%
10

The heat liberated during hydration will offset to a consid-

2
erable degree the loss of heat during placing, finishing, and
10 early curing operations. As the heat of hydration subsides,
(25°
F) 1 the need to cover the concrete becomes even more important.
-4°C 0%
RH
10
0 0
1 3 7 28 90 365
Age at test, days

Figure 17-5. Effect of temperature conditions on the strength devel-

opment of concrete. Concrete for the lower curve was cast at 4°C
(40°F) and placed immediately in a curing room at -4°C (25°F). Both
concretes received 100% relative humidity curing for first 28 days
followed by 50% relative humidity curing (Klieger 1958).

140
Mix data:
Water to cement ratio = 0.43
Air content: 4 to 5%
120 Cement: Type I,
310 kg/m3 (517 lb/yd3)
Compressive strength, percent of

100
28-day 23°C cured concrete

)
°F

80
(40
4°C
)

Figure 17-7. Concrete footing pedestal being covered with a tarpaulin

°F
(55

to retain the heat of hydration.

60
°C
13
F)
3°

Special Concrete Mixtures

(7
°C

40
23

High strength at an early age is desirable in cold weather

20
0
1 3
Figure 17-6. Effect of low temperatures on concrete compressive
strength at various ages. Note that for this particular mixture made
with Type I cement, the best temperature for long-term strength
(1 year) was 13°C (55°F) (Klieger 1958).
different cements. Dimensions of the concrete placement,
ambient air temperature, initial concrete temperature,
water-cement ratio, admixtures, and the composition,
fineness, and amount of cementitious material all affect
heat generation and buildup.
Heat of hydration is useful in winter concreting as it
contributes to the heat needed to provide a satisfactory
Curing:
Specimens cast and moist-cured
at temperature indicated for first
28 days. All moist-cured at
23°C (73°F) thereafter.
7 28 90
Age at test, days
construction to reduce the length of time temporary
protection is required. The additional cost of high-early-
strength concrete is often offset by earlier reuse of forms
and shores, savings in the shorter duration of temporary
365 heating, earlier setting times that allows the finishing of
flatwork to begin sooner, and earlier use of the structure.
High-early-strength concrete can be obtained by using
oneor a combination of the following:
1. Type III or HE high-early-strength cement
2. Additional portland cement [60 kg/m3 to 120 kg/m3
(100 lb/yd3 to 200 lb/yd3)]
3. Set accelerating admixtures
Principal advantages occur during the first 7 days. At a
4°C (40°F) curing temperature, the advantages of Type III
cement are more pronounced and persist longer than at
the higher temperature (Figure 17-8).

329
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Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

50 7
Mix data:
Water to cement ratio = 0.43, Type I cement
= 0.45, Type III cement
Air content: 4 to 5% 6
40 Cement content: 310 kg/m3 (517 lb/yd3)

Compressive strength, 1000 psi

Compressive strength, MPa

30
4

20 3
Type III, mixed and cured
at 23°C (73°F)
Type I, mixed and cured
2
at 23°C (73°F)
10 Type III, mixed and cured
at 4°C (40°F) 1
Type I, mixed and cured
at 4°C (40°F)
0
1 3 7 28
Age of test, days Figure 17-9. Finishing this concrete flatwork can proceed because a
windbreak has been provided, there is adequate heat under the slab,
Figure 17-8. Early-age compressive-strength relationships for Type I and the concrete has low slump.
and Type III portland cement concretes mixed and cured at 4°C
(40°F) compared to 23°C (73°F) (Klieger 1958).
Air-Entrained Concrete
Small amounts of a set accelerating admixture can be
used to accelerate the setting and early-age strength Entrained air is particularly desirable in any concrete
development of concrete in cold weather. Set accelerators that will be exposed to freezing weather while in service.
containing chlorides should not be used where there is Concrete that is not air entrained can suffer strength loss
an in-service potential for corrosion, such as in concrete and internal as well as surface damage as a result of
members containing steel reinforcement or where alum- freezing and thawing (Figure 17-10). Air entrainment
inum or galvanized inserts will be used. Chlorides are not provides the capacity to absorb stresses due to ice for-
recommended for concretes exposed to soil or water con- mation within the concrete.
taining sulfates or for concretes susceptible to alkali-aggre-
gate reaction. 400

Set accelerators must not be used as a substitute for proper

curing and frost protection. Specially designed acceler- Cured normally
(never frozen)
ating admixtures allow concrete to be placed at tem-
300
Percentage of the strength at 7 days

peratures down to -7°C (20°F). The purpose of these

admixtures is to reduce the time of initial setting, but not
necessarily to speed up strength gain. Covering concrete to
keep out moisture and to retain heat of hydration is still Frozen dry
necessary. Furthermore, traditional antifreeze solutions, as 200
used in automobiles, should never be used. The quantity of
these materials needed to appreciably lower the freezing
point of concrete is so great that strength and other prop-
erties can be seriously affected. Frozen wet

100
Since the goal of using special concrete mixtures during
cold weather concreting is to reduce the time of setting,
a low water-cement ratio, low-slump concrete is particu-
larly desirable, especially for cold-weather flatwork. In
addition, bleed water is minimized so that finishing can 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
be accomplished more quickly (Figure 17-9). Concrete mix- Number of cycles of freezing and thawing
tures with higher slumps provided by water or retarding
water-reducing admixtures usually take longer to set. Figure 17-10. Effect of freezing and thawing on strength of concrete
that does not contain entrained air (cured 7 days before first freeze)
(Powers 1956).

330
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 331
Air entrainment should always be used for construction
during the freezing months. The exception is concrete
work done under roof where there is no chance that
rain, snow, or water from other sources can saturate the
concrete and where there is no chance of freezing. See
Chapters 7 and 11 for more information on air-entraining
admixtures and freeze-thaw resistance of concrete due
to air-entrainment.
There is a likelihood of water saturating a concrete floor
during construction. Figure 17-11 shows conditions in
the upper story of an apartment building during winter
construction. Snow accumulated on the top deck and
when heaters were used below to warm the deck below,
then the snow melted. Water ran through floor openings
down to a level that was not being heated. The water-
saturated concrete froze, which caused a strength loss,
particularly at the floor surface. This could also result
in greater deflection of the floor and a surface that is less
wear-resistant than originally designed. Steel trowelled
(burnished) floor finishes should not be used when en-
trained air content is specified for slabs. Entrained air may
promote blistering and delamination of the slab surface.
In addition, the intense energy applied to the slab surface
densifies that surface, removing the entrained air content
leaving the surface vulnerable to surface scaling deterior-
ation in cold weather conditions.
Figure 17-11. Example of a concrete floor that was saturated with
rain, snow, or water and then frozen, showing the need for air en-
trainment.
Temperature of Concrete
Temperature of Concrete as Mixed
The temperature of fresh concrete as mixed should not
be less than shown in Lines 1, 2, or 3 of Table 17-1 for the
respective thickness of section. Note that lower concrete
temperatures are recommended for more massive con-
crete sections because heat generated during hydration is
331
Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting
dissipated less rapidly in heavier sections. Also note that
at lower ambient air temperatures more heat is lost from
concrete during transporting and placing. Therefore, the
recommended concrete temperatures as mixed are higher
for colder weather.
There is little advantage in using fresh concrete at a tem-
perature much above 21°C (70°F). Higher concrete temper-
atures do not afford proportionately longer protection
from freezing because the rate of heat loss is greater. Also,
high concrete temperatures are undesirable since they
increase thermal shrinkage after hardening, require more
mixing water for the same slump, and contribute to the
possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking (caused by rapid
moisture loss through evaporation). Therefore, the temper-
ature of the concrete as mixed should not be more than 8°C
(15°F) above the minimum recommended in Table 17-1.
Aggregate Temperature. The temperature of aggregates
varies with weather and type of storage. Aggregates
usually contain frozen lumps and ice when the tempera-
ture is below freezing. Frozen aggregates must be thawed
to avoid aggregate pockets in the concrete after batching,
mixing, and placing. If thawing takes place in the mixer,
excessively high water contents in conjunction with the
cooling effect caused by melting ice must be considered.
At air temperatures consistently above -4°C (25°F) it is
seldom necessary to heat aggregates, the desired concrete
temperature can usually be obtained by heating only the
mixing water. At temperatures below freezing, in addition
to heating the mixing water, often only the fine aggregate
needs to be heated to produce concrete of the required
temperature, provided the coarse aggregate is free of
frozen lumps.
Three of the most common methods for heating aggre-
gates are: (1) storing in bins or weigh hoppers heated by
steam coils or live steam; (2) storing in silos heated by hot
air or steam coils; and (3) stockpiling over heated slabs,
steam vents, or pipes. Although heating aggregates stored
in bins or weigh hoppers is most commonly used, the
volume of aggregate that can be heated is often limited
and quickly consumed during production. Circulating
steam through pipes over which aggregates are stockpiled
is a recommended method for heating aggregates. Stock-
piles can be covered with tarpaulins to retain and distri-
bute heat and to prevent formation of ice. Live steam,
preferably at pressures of 500 kPa to 900 kPa (75 psi to
125 psi), can be injected directly into the aggregate pile
to heat it, but the resultant variable moisture content in
aggregates might result in erratic mixing-water control
and must be accurately measured and accounted for in
batching. Avoid heating methods that may promote hot
spots in the aggregates of greater than 100°C (212°F) or
average temperatures greater than 65°C (150°F).
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 332

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Table 17-1. Recommended Concrete Temperature for Cold-Weather Construction – Air-Entrained Concrete*
Thickness of sections, mm (in.)
Less than 300 to 900 900 to 1800 Over
Line Condition 300 (12) (12 to 36) (36 TO 72) 1800 (72)
1 Minimum temperature of Above -1°C (30°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F) 7°C (45°F)
fresh concrete as mixed for
2 weather indicated. -18°C to -1°C (0°F to 30°F) 18°C (65°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F)

3 Below -18°C (0°F) 21°C (70°F) 18°C (65°F) 16°C (60°F) 13°C (55°F)
4 Minimum temperature of fresh concrete as placed and 13°C (55°F) 10°C (50°F) 7°C (45°F) 5°C (40°F)
maintained.**

* Adapter from Table 5.1 of ACI 306R-10.

** Placement temperatures listed are for normal-weight concrete. Lower temperatures cn be used for lightweight concrete if justified by tests.
For recommended duration of temperatures in Line 4, see Table 17-3.

On small jobs aggregates can be heated by stockpiling Weighted average temperature of

over metal culvert pipes in which fires are maintained. aggregates and cement, °F
40 50 60 70
Care should be taken to prevent scorching the aggregates. 180
Mix data:
78 Aggregate = 1360 kg (3000 lb)
Mixing-Water Temperature. Of the ingredients used to Moisture in aggregate = 27 kg (60 lb)
make concrete, mixing water is the easiest and most prac- Added mixing water = 108 kg (240 lb)
Portland cement = 256 kg (564 lb)
tical to heat. The mass of aggregates and cement in con- 70 160
crete is much greater than the mass of water. However, Mixing water temperature, °C

Mixing water temperature, °F

water can store about five times as much heat per unit Concrete temperature
weight as can cement and aggregate. For cement and 62
24°C 140
aggregates, the average specific heat (that is, heat units (75°F)
required to raise the temperature 1°C (1°F) per kg (lb) of
54
material) can be assumed as 0.925 kJ (0.22 Btu) compared 20°C
(68°F)
to 4.187 kJ (1.0 Btu) for water.
120
46 16°C
Figure 17-12 shows the effect of temperature of materials (61°F)
on temperature of fresh concrete. The chart is based on
12°C
equation 1. 38 (54°F) 100
[0.22(Ta Ma+Ts Ms+Tc Mc)+Tw Mw+Tws Mws+TwaMwa 8°C
T= (46°F)
[0.22(Ma+Ms+Mc)+Mw+Mws+Mwa] 30
(Eq. 1)
80
Where: 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Weighted average temperature of
T = temperature in degrees Celsius (Fahrenheit) of the aggregates and cement, °C
fresh concrete Figure 17-12. Temperature of mixing water needed to produce
heated concrete of required temperature. Temperatures are based
Ta, Ts, Tc, Tw, and Tws and Twa = temperature in degrees on the mixture shown but are reasonably accurate for other
Celsius (Fahrenheit) of the coarse aggregate, sand, cement, typical mixtures.
added mixing water, and free moisture on sand and free
moisture on coarse aggregate; When the temperature of one or more of the aggregates is
generally Ts = Tws and Ta = Twa below 0°C (32°F) the free moisture on the aggregates will
freeze, equation 1 can be modified to account for the addi-
Ma, Ms, Mc, Mw, Mws and Mwa = mass in kilograms
tional heat required to return the frozen free moisture to a
(pounds) of the coarse aggregate, sand, cement, mixing
thawed moist state.
water, free moisture on sand, and free moisture on coarse
aggregate Si units – substitute Mws(0.5Ts – 80) for TsMws
If the weighted average temperature of aggregates and substitute Mwa(0.5Ta – 80) for TaMwa
cement is above 0°C (32°F), the proper mixing water tem- Inch pounds – substitute Mws(0.5Ts – 128) for TsMws
perature for the required concrete temperature can be
selected from Figure 17-12. The range of concrete temper- substitute Mwa(0.5Ta – 128) for TaMwa
atures in the chart corresponds with the recommended
values given in Lines 1, 2, and 3 of Table 17-1.

332
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Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting

To avoid the possibility of a quick or flash set of the con- Table 17-2. Maximum Allowable Temperature Drop During First
crete when either water or aggregates are heated to above 24 Hours After End of Protection Period*
38°C (100°F), they should be combined in the mixer first, Section size, minimum dimensions, mm (in.)
before the cement is added. If this mixer-loading sequence Less than 300 to 900 900 to 1800 Over
is followed, water temperatures up to the boiling point can 300 (12) (12 to 36) (36 to 72) 1800 (72)
be used, provided the aggregates are cold enough to re-
27°C (50°F) 22°C (40°F) 17°C (30°F) 11°C (20°F)
duce the final temperature of the aggregates and water
mixture to appreciably less than 38°C (100°F). *Adapted from Table 5.1 of ACI 306R-10.

Fluctuations in mixing-water temperature from batch to

batch should be avoided. The temperature of the mixing Monitoring Concrete Temperature
water can be adjusted by blending hot and cold water.
Calibrated thermometers are needed to check the concrete
Temperature Loss During Delivery temperatures as delivered, as placed, and as maintained. An
Temperature loss during haul time may be an issue when inexpensive pocket thermometer is shown in Figure 17-13.
delivery times approaching or greater than 1 hour are
anticipated. The following equations may be used to esti-
mate temperature loss. These equations accommodate the
adjustments to initial temperature to assure minimum
temperature requirements at delivery. Adjust the values
proportionally for times less or greater than 1 hour (ACI
306-10).
For revolving drum mixers T = 0.25 (tr – ta)
For covered-dump body T = 0.10 (tr – ta)
For open-dump T = 0.15 (tr – ta) Figure 17-13. A bimetallic pocket thermometer with a metal sensor
suitable for checking fresh concrete temperatures.
Where:
tr – Is required delivery temperature in degrees Celsius After the concrete has hardened, temperatures can be
or Fahrenheit checked with special surface thermometers or with an
ordinary thermometer that is kept covered with insulating
ta – Is required air temperature in degrees Celsius blankets. A simple way to check temperature below the
or Fahrenheit concrete surface is shown in Figure 17-14. Instead of fill-
ing the hole shown in Figure 17-14 with a fluid, it can be
Temperature of Concrete as Placed and Maintained
fitted with insulation. In that application the bulb would
The concrete should be placed in the forms before its remain exposed.
temperature drops below that given on Line 4 of Table
Thermometer
17-1. That temperature should be maintained for the
duration of the protection period given in Chapter 15
under Curing Period and Temperature.

Cooling After Protection Surface of concrete

Gasket stopper

To avoid cracking of the concrete due to sudden tempera-

ture change at the end of the curing period, ACI Commit-
tee 306 requires that the source of heat and cover protection Water or
be slowly removed. The maximum allowable temperature alcohol

drop during the first 24 hours after the end of the protec-
tion is given in Table 17-2. The temperature drops apply Drilled or
preformed
to surface temperatures. Notice that the cooling rates for hole
surfaces of mass concrete (thick sections) are lower than
they are for thinner members.

Figure 17-14. Scheme for measuring concrete temperatures below

the surface with a glass thermometer.

333
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 334
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
Concrete test cylinders must be maintained at a tempera-
ture between 16°C (60°F) and 27°C (80°F) at the jobsite
for up to 48 hours until they are taken to a laboratory for
curing (ASTM C31, Standard Practice for Making and
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field or AASHTO
T 23). For concrete mixtures with a specified strength of
40 MPa (6,000 psi) or greater, the initial curing tempera-
ture shall be between 20°C and 26°C (68°F and 78°F).
During this period, cylinders should be kept in a curing
box and covered with a nonabsorptive, nonreactive plate
or impervious plastic bag. The temperature in the box
should be accurately controlled by a thermostat (Figure
17-15). When stored in an insulated curing box outdoors,
cylinders are less likely to be disturbed by vibrations than
if left on the floor of a trailer. If kept in a trailer the heat
may be inadvertently turned off at night or over a week-
end or holiday in cold weather conditions. In that case, the
cylinders would not be at the prescribed curing tempera-
tures during this critical period.
Cylinders stripped of molds after the first 24±8 hours must
be wrapped tightly in plastic bags or laboratory curing
started immediately. When cylinders with strengths less
than 40 MPa (6000 psi) are picked up for delivery to the
laboratory, they must be maintained at a temperature of
16°C (60°F) to 27°C (80°F) until they are placed in the lab-
oatory curing room. Cylinders with strengths of 40 MPa
(6000 psi) or greater must be maintained at a temperature
of 20°C (68°F) to 26°C (78°F) (ASTM C31).
Figure 17-15. Insulated curing box with thermostat for curing test
cylinders. Heat is supplied by electric rubber heating mats on the
bottom. A wide variety of designs are possible for curing boxes.
In addition to laboratory cured cylinders, it is useful to
field cure some test cylinders in order to monitor actual
jobsite curing conditions in cold weather. It is sometimes
difficult to find the right locations for field curing. Differ-
ences in the surface to volume ratios between cylinders
and the structure, in conjunction with differences in mass,
make correlating field cured cylinder strengths to in-place
strengths difficult. A preferred location is in a boxout in a
floor slab or wall with thermal insulation for cover. When
placed on a formwork ledge just below a heated,
334
suspended floor, possible high temperatures there will
not duplicate the average temperature in the slab, or the
lowest temperature on top of the slab. Still, field cured
cylinders are more indicative of actual concrete strength
than laboratory-cured cylinders. Particular care should be
taken to protect compressive strength test cylinders from
freezing; their small mass may not generate enough heat
of hydration to protect them.
Cast-in-place cylinders (ASTM C873, Standard Test Method
for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast in Place
in Cylindrical Molds) and nondestructive testing methods
(see Chapter 18) as well as maturity techniques (discussed
later in this chapter) are helpful in monitoring in place
concrete strength.
Concreting on Ground During Cold Weather
Concreting on ground during cold weather involves some
extra preparation. Placing concrete on the ground involves
different procedures than those used at an upper level:
(1) the ground must be thawed before placing concrete;
(2) cement hydration will furnish some of the curing heat;
(3) construction of enclosures is much simpler and use of
insulating blankets may be sufficient; (4) in the case of
a floor slab, a vented heater is required if the area is en-
closed; and (5) hydronic heaters can be used to thaw sub-
grades using insulated blankets or to heat enclosures
without concern for carbonation. For more on hydronic
heaters, see Heaters later in this chapter.
Once cast, footings should be backfilled as soon as possi-
ble with unfrozen fill. Concrete should never be placed on
a frozen subgrade or backfilled with frozen fill. Once these
frozen materials thaw, uneven settlements may occur and
cause cracking.
ACI Committee 306 requires that concrete not be placed
on any surface that would lower the temperature of the
concrete in place below the minimum values shown on
Line 4 in Table 17-1. In addition, concrete placement
temperatures should not be higher than these minimum
values by more than 11°C (20°F) to reduce rapid mois-
ture loss and the potential development of plastic
shrinkage cracks.
When the subgrade is frozen to a depth of approximately
80 mm (3 inches), the surface region can be thawed by
(1) steaming; (2) spreading a layer of hot sand, gravel, or
other granular material where the grade elevations allow it;
(3) removing and replacing with unfrozen fill; (4) covering
the subgrade with insulation for a few days; or (5) using
hydronic heaters under insulated blankets. Placing con-
crete for floor slabs and exposed footings should be delayed
until the ground thaws and warms sufficiently to ensure
that it will not freeze again during the protection and
curing period.
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 335

Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting

Slabs can be cast on ground at ambient temperatures as Table 17-3B. Recommended Duration of Concrete Protection for Fully
low as 2°C (35°F) as long as the minimum concrete tem- Stressed, Exposed, Air-Entrained Concrete
perature as placed is not less than shown on Line 4 of Days at 10°C (50°F) Days at 21°C (70°F)
Table 17-1. Although surface temperatures need not be Required
Type of Type of
higher than a few degrees above freezing, they also should percentage of
hydraulic cement hydraulic cement
preferably not be more than 5°C (10°F) higher than the standard-cured
minimum placement temperature. The duration of curing 28-day I or II or III or I or II or III or
strength GU MH HE GU MH HE
should not be less than that described in Chapter 15 for
the appropriate exposure classification. Because of the risk 50 6 9 3 4 6 3
of surface imperfections that might occur on exterior con- 65 11 14 5 8 10 4
85 21 28 16 16 18 12
crete placed in late fall and winter, many concrete contrac- 95 29 35 26 23 24 20
tors choose to delay concrete placement until spring. By
waiting until spring, temperatures will be more favorable * Adapted from Table 7.1 of ACI 306-10. Cold weather is defined as
for cement hydration; this will help generate adequate when the temperature has, or is expected to, fall below 4°C (40°F).
For recommended concrete temperatures, see Table 17-1. For
strengths along with sufficient drying so the concrete can
concrete that is not air entrained, ACI Committee 306 states that
resist freeze-thaw damage. protection for durability should be at least twice the number of days
listed in Table A.
Part B was adapted from Table 8.2 of ACI 306R-10. The values
Concreting Above Ground During Cold Weather shown are approximations and will vary according to the thickness
of concrete, mix proportions, and so on. They are intended to
Working above ground in cold weather usually involves represent the ages at which supporting forms can be removed.
several different approaches in comparison to work at For recommended concrete temperatures, see Table 17-1.
ground level: ** Made with ASTM C150 Type I, II, or C1157 GU, or MH hydraulic
cement.
1. The concrete mixture may not need to be changed to † Made with ASTM C150Type III or C1157 HE hydraulic cement, an
generate more heat because portable heaters can be accelerator, or an extra 60 kg/m3 (100 lb/yd3) of cement.
used to heat the undersides of floor and roof slabs. ‡ “Exposed” means subject to freezing and thawing.
However, there are advantages to having a mix that
will produce a high strength at an early age; for for surfaces in contact with fresh concrete are the same as
example, artificial heat can be cut off sooner (see those outlined in Concreting on Ground During Cold
Table 17-3), and forms can be recycled faster. Weather. Metallic embedments at temperatures below the
freezing point may result in local freezing that decreases
2. Enclosures must be constructed to retain the heat
the bond between concrete and steel reinforcement. ACI
under floor and roof slabs.
Committee 306 suggests that a reinforcing bar having a
3. Portable heaters used to warm the underside of cross-sectional area of about 650 mm2 (1 in.2) should have
formed concrete can be direct fired heating units a temperature of at least -12°C (10°F) immediately before
(without venting). being surrounded by fresh concrete at a temperature of at
least 13°C (55°F). Caution and additional study are re-
Before placing concrete, the heaters under a formed deck
quired before definitive recommendations can be formu-
should be turned on to preheat the forms and melt any
lated. Good concrete placement practice suggests heating
snow or ice remaining on top. Temperature requirements
surfaces of formwork and large embedments to no more
than 5°C (10°F) above and no less than 8°C (15°F) below
Table 17-3A. Recommended Duration of Concrete Protection in Cold the temperature of the concrete mixture. See ACI 306 for
Weather – Air-Entrained Concrete*
additional information.
High-early-
Conventional strength When slab finishing is completed, insulating blankets
concrete,** concrete,† or other insulation must be placed on top of the slab to
Service category days days ensure that proper curing temperatures are maintained.
The insulation value (R) necessary to maintain the con-
No load, not exposed‡
favorable moist-curing 2 1 crete surface temperature of walls and slabs above ground
at 10°C (50°F) or above for 7 days may be estimated from
No load, exposed, but later Figure 17-16. To maintain a temperature for longer periods,
has favorable moist-curing 3 2 more insulation is required. ACI 306 has additional graphs
Partial load, exposed 6 4 and tables for slabs placed on ground at a temperature of
2°C (35°F). Insulation can be selected based on R values
Fully stressed, exposed See Table B below
provided by insulation manufacturers or by using the
information in Table 17-4.

335
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:50 PM Page 336

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Wall or slab thickness, in.

0 12 24 0 12 24 0 12 24
10 50
R=
5 0.3 R= R
5 (2 0.3 =0 40
) 5( .35
R 2) ( 2)
0 =
0. 30
70

R
(4

R
=
)

=
0.
-5
R

0.
70

70
=
20

(4
1.
Minimum ambient temperature, °C

Minimum ambient temperature, °F

(4
)
06

)
-10

=1
(6
)
10

. 06
R

R=
=1

-15

( 6)
.41

1.0
0

R=

6(
( 8)

-20

6)
1.4
-10

1
-25

(8)

R=
1. 4
-20
-30

1 (8
)
-30
-35

-40 -40
Cement content Cement content Cement content
-45 237 kg/m3 296 kg/m3 356 kg/m3
-50
(400 lb/yd3) (500 lb/yd3) (600 lb/yd3)

-50 -60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Wall or slab thickness, mm

Figure 17-16. Thermal resistance (R) of insulation required to maintain the concrete surface temperature of walls and slabs aboveground at 10°C
(50°F) or above for 7 days. Concrete temperature as placed: 10°C (50°F). Maximum wind velocity: 24 km/h (15 mph). Note that in order to main-
tain a certain minimum temperature for a longer period of time, more insulation or a higher R value is required (adapted from ACI 306).

When concrete strength development is not determined, a between the concrete interior and the concrete surface
conservative estimate can be made if adequate protection should be about 20°C (35°F) to minimize cracking. The
at the recommended temperature is provided for the dur- weather forecast should be checked and appropriate
ation of time found in Table 17-3. However, the actual action taken for expected temperature changes.
amount of insulation and length of the protection period
should be determined from the monitored in place con- Columns and walls should not be cast on foundations at
crete temperature and the desired strength. A correlation temperatures below 0°C (32°F) because chilling of con-
between curing temperature, curing time, and compres- crete in the bottom of the column or wall will retard
sive strength can be determined from laboratory testing strength development. Concrete should not be placed
of the particular concrete mixture used in the field (see on any surface that would lower the temperature of the
Maturity Concept). Corners and edges are particularly as-placed concrete below the minimum values shown
vulnerable during cold weather. As a result, the thickness on Line 4 in Table 17-1.
of insulation for these areas, especially on columns,
should be about three times the thickness that is required Enclosures
for walls or slabs. On the other hand, if the ambient tem-
perature rises much above the temperature assumed in
Heated enclosures are very effective for protecting con-
selecting insulation values, the temperature of the con-
crete in cold weather, but are expensive (Figure 17-17).
crete may become excessive. This increases the probability
Enclosures can be of wood, canvas tarpaulins, or poly-
of thermal shock and cracking when forms are removed.
ethylene film (Figure 17-18). Prefabricated, rigid plastic
Temperature readings of insulated concrete should there-
enclosures are also available. Plastic enclosures that admit
fore be taken at regular intervals and should not vary
daylight are the most popular but temporary heat in these
from ambient air temperatures by more than the values
enclosures can prove expensive.
given in ACI 306. The maximum temperature differential

336
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 337

Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting

Table 17-4. Insulation Values of Various Materials

Thermal resistance, R, for 10-mm (1-in.) thickness

Material Density kg/m3 (lb/ft3) of material,* (m2 • K) / W ([°F • hr • ft2] / Btu)
Board and slabs
Expanded polyurethane 24 (1.5) 0.437 (6.25)
Expanded polystyrene, extruded smooth-silk surface 29 to 56 (1.8 to 3.5) 0.347 (5.0)
Expasnded polystyrene, extruded cut-cell surface 29 (1.8) 0.277 (4.0)
Glass fiber, organic bonded 64 to 144 (4 to 9) 0.277 (4.0)
Expanded polystyrene, molded beads 16 (1) 0.247 (3.85)
Mineral fiber with resin binder 240 (15) 0.239 (3.45)
Mineral fiberboard, wet felted 256 to 272 (16 to 17) 0.204 (2.94)
Vegetable fiberboard sheathing 288 (18) 0.182 (2.64)
Cellular glass 136 (8.5) 0.201 (2.86)
Laminated paperboard 480 (30) 0.139 (2.00)
Particle board (low density) 590 (37) 0.128 (1.85)
Plywood 545 (34) 0.087 (1.24)
Loose fill
Wood fiber, soft woods 32 to 56 (2.0 to 3.5) 0.231 (3.33)
Perlite (expanded) 80 to 128 (5.0 to 8.0) 0.187 (2.70)
Vermiculite (exfoliated) 64 to 96 (4.0 to 6.0) 0.157 (2.27)
Vermiculite (exfoliated) 112 to 131 (7.0 to 8.2) 0.148 (2.13)
Sawdust or shavings 128 to 240 (8.0 to 15.0) 0.154 (2.22)

Thermal resistance, R, for 10-mm (1-in.) thickness of

Material Density kg/m3 (lb/ft3) material,* (m2 • K) / W ([°F • hr • ft2] / Btu)
Mineral fiber blanket, fibrous form 50 to 70 (2 to 2.75) 1.23 (7)
(rock, slag, or glass) 75 to 85 (3 to 3.5) 1.90 (11)
5 to 32 kg/m3 (0.3 to 2 lb/ft3) 90 to 165 (5.5 to 6.5) 3.34 (19)
Mineral fiber loose fill (rock, slag, or glass) 95 to 125 (3.75 to 5) 1.90 (11)
10 to 32 kg/m3 (0.6 to 2 lb/ft3) 165 to 220 (6.5 to 8.75) 3.34 (19)
190 to 250 (7.5 to 10) 3.87 (22)
260 to 350 (10.25 to 13.75) 5.28 (30)

* Values are from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Enginers, Inc., New York,
1977 and 1981.
R values are the reciprocal of U values (conductivity).

Figure 17-17. Even in the winter, an outdoor swimming pool

can be constructed if a heated enclosure is used.

Figure 17-18. (top) Tarpaulin heated enclosure maintains an adequate

temperature for proper curing and protection during severe and prolonged
winter weather. (bottom) Polyethylene plastic sheets admitting daylight are
used to fully enclose a building frame. The temperature inside is maintained
at 10°C (50°F) with space heaters.

337
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 338
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
When enclosures are being constructed below a deck, the
framework can be extended above the deck to serve as a
windbreak. Typically, a height of 2 m (6 ft) will protect
concrete and construction personnel against biting winds
that cause temperature drops and excessive evaporation.
Wind breaks may be taller or shorter depending on antici-
pated wind velocities, ambient temperatures, relative
humidity, and concrete placement temperatures.
Enclosures can be quickly transported using flying forms;
more often, though, they must be removed so that the wind
will not interfere with maneuvering the forms into position.
Similarly, enclosures can be built in large panels with the
windbreak included; much like gang forms (Figure 17-1).
Insulating Materials
Heat and moisture can be retained in the concrete by
covering it with commercial insulating blankets or batt
insulation (Figure 17-19). The effectiveness of insulation
can be determined by placing a thermometer under it and
in contact with the concrete. If the temperature falls below
the minimum required on Line 4 in Table 17-1, additional
insulating material, or material with a higher R value,
should be applied. Corners and edges of concrete are most
vulnerable to freezing. In view of this, temperatures at
these locations should be checked more often.
Figure 17-19. Stack of insulating blankets. These blankets trap heat
and moisture in the concrete, providing beneficial curing.
The thermal resistance (R) values for common insulating
materials are given in Table 17-4. For maximum efficiency,
insulating materials should be kept dry and in close
contact with concrete or formwork.
Concrete pavements can be protected from cold weather
by spreading 300 mm (1 ft) or more of dry straw or hay on
the surface for insulation. Tarpaulins, polyethylene film,
or waterproof paper should be used as a protective cover
338
over the straw or hay to make the insulation more effec-
tive and prevent it from blowing away. The straw or hay
should be kept dry or its insulation value will drop
considerably.
Insulating blankets for construction are made of fiberglass,
sponge rubber, open cell polyurethane foam, vinyl foam,
mineral wool, or cellulose fibers. The outer covers are made
of canvas, woven polyethylene, or other tough fabrics that
will withstand rough handling. The R value for a typical
insulating blanket is about 1.2 m2 • °C/W for 50 to 70 mm
thickness, (7°F • hr • ft2 )/Btu, but since R values are not
marked on the blankets, their effectiveness should be
checked with a thermometer. If necessary, they can be
used in multiple layers to attain the desired insulation.
Stay-in-place insulating concrete forms (ICF) became
popular for cold-weather construction in the 1990s (Figure
17-20). Gajda (2002) showed that ICFs can be used to
successfully place concrete in ambient temperatures as
low as -29°C (-20°F). Forms built for repeated use often
can be economically insulated with commercial blanket
or batt insulation. The insulation should have a tough
moisture proof covering to withstand handling abuse and
exposure to the weather. Rigid insulation can also be used
(Figure 17-21).
Figure 17-20. Insulating concrete forms (ICF) permit concreting in
cold weather.
Heaters
Three types of heaters are used in cold weather concrete
construction: direct fired, indirect fired, and hydronic
systems (Figures 17-22 to 17-25). Indirect fired heaters
are vented to remove the products of combustion. Where
heat is supplied to the top surface of fresh concrete – for
example, a floor slab – vented heaters are required. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the exhaust must be vented to the out-
side and prevented from reacting with the fresh concrete
(Figure 17-23). Direct fired units can be used to heat the
enclosed space beneath concrete placed for a floor or a
roof deck (Figure 17-24).
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 339

Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting

Figure 17-23. An indirect-fired heater. Notice vent pipe that carries

Figure 17-21. With air temperatures down to -23°C (-10°F), concrete combustion gases outside the enclosure.
was cast in this insulated column form made of 19-mm (3⁄4-in.) high-
density plywood inside, 25-mm (1-in.) rigid polystyrene in the middle,
and 13-mm (1⁄2-in.) rough plywood outside. R value: 1.0 m2 • °C/W
(5.6 [°F • hr • ft2 ]/Btu).

Air
Air Air,
supply CO,
CO2,
Air
Fan Flame
a) Direct-fired heater

Air,
CO,
CO2,

Figure 17-24. A direct-fired heater installed through the enclosure,

thus using a fresh air supply.
Enclosure

Any heater burning a fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide

Stove pipe vent (CO2); this gas will combine with calcium hydroxide on
the surface of fresh concrete to form a weak layer of cal-
Air
Clean
cium carbonate that interferes with cement hydration
Air heated (Kauer and Freeman 1955). The result is a soft, chalky
supply air
only surface that will dust under traffic. Depth and degree
Air of carbonation depend on concentration of CO2, curing
Fan Flame temperature, humidity, porosity of the concrete, length
b) Indirect-fired heater of exposure, and method of curing. Direct-fired heaters,
Figure 17-22. Two types of air heaters.

339
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:54 PM Page 340

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

therefore, should not be permitted to heat the air over con-
creting operations – at least until 24 hours have elapsed. In
addition, the use of gasoline-powered construction equip-
ment should be restricted in enclosures during that time.
If unvented heaters are used, immediate wet curing or the
use of a curing compound will minimize carbonation.
Carbon monoxide (CO), another product of combustion,
is not usually a problem unless the heater is using recircu-
lated air. Four hours of exposure to 200 parts per million of
CO will produce headaches and nausea. Three hours of
exposure to 600 ppm can be fatal. The American National
Standard Safety Requirements for Temporary and Portable
Space Heating Devices and Equipment Used in the Con-
struction Industry (ANSI A10.10) limits concentrations of
CO to 50 ppm at worker breathing levels. The standard
also establishes safety rules for ventilation and the stability,
operation, fueling, and maintenance of heaters.
nearly eliminated as is the danger of accidentally over-
heating the concrete and in potentially damaging long
term strength gain.
Typical applications for hydronic systems include thaw-
ing and preheating subgrades. They are also used to cure
elevated and on-grade slabs, walls, foundations, and col-
umns. To heat a concrete element, hydronic heating hoses
are usually laid on or hung adjacent to the structure and
covered with insulated blankets and sometimes plastic
sheets. Usually, construction of temporary enclosures is
not necessary. Hydronic systems can be used over areas
much larger than would be practical to enclose. If a
heated enclosure is necessary for other work, hydronic
hoses can be sacrificed (left under a slab on grade) to
make the slab a radiant heater for the structure built
above (Grochoski 2000).

A salamander is an inexpensive combustion heater with-

out a fan that discharges its combustion products directly
into the surrounding air; heating is accomplished by ra-
diation from its metal casing. Salamanders are fueled by
coke, oil, wood, or liquid propane. They are one form of
a direct-fired heater. A primary disadvantage of salaman-
ders is the high temperature of their metal casing; a defi-
nite fire hazard. Salamanders should be placed so that
they will not overheat formwork or enclosure materials.
When placed on floor slabs, they should be elevated to
avoid scorching the concrete.

Some heaters burn more than one type of fuel. The

approximate heat values of fuels are as follows:

No. 1 fuel oil 37,700 kJ/L (135,000 Btu/gal)

Kerosene 37,400 kJ/L (134,000 Btu/gal)
Gasoline 35,725 kJ/L (128,000 Btu/gal)
Liquid-propane gas 25,500 kJ/L (91,500 Btu/gal)
Natural gas 37,200 kJ/m3 (1,000 Btu/ft3)

The output rating of a portable heater is usually the heat

content of the fuel consumed per hour. A rule of thumb is
that about 134,000 kJ are required for each 100 m3 (36,000
Btu for 10,000 ft 3) of air to develop a 10°C (20°F) tempera-
ture rise.
Hydronic systems transfer heat by circulating a glycol/
water solution in a closed system of pipes or hoses (see
Figure 17-25). These systems transfer heat more efficiently
than forced air systems without the negative effects of
exhaust gases and drying of the concrete from air move-
ment. The specific heat of water/glycol solutions is more
than six times greater than air. As a result, hydronic heaters
can deliver very large quantities of heat at low tempera-
ture differentials of 5°C (10°F) or less between the heat
transfer hose and the concrete. Cracking and curling in-
duced by temperature gradients within the concrete are
Figure 17-25. Hydronic system showing hoses (top) laying on soil to
defrost subgrade and (bottom) warming the forms while fresh
concrete is pumped in.
Electricity can also be used to cure concrete in winter. The
use of large electric blankets equipped with thermostats is
one method. The blankets can also be used to thaw sub-
grades or concrete foundations.
Use of electrical resistance wires that are cast into the
concrete is another method. The power supplied is under
50 volts, and from 7.0 to 23.5 MJ (1.5 to 5 kilowatt-hours)
of electricity per cubic meter (cubic yard) of concrete is

340
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 341
required, depending on the circumstances. Where elec-
trical resistance wires are used, insulation should be in-
cluded during the initial setting period. If insulation is
removed before the recommended time, the concrete
should be covered with an impervious sheet and the
power continued for the required time.
Steam is another source of heat for winter concreting.
Live steam can be piped into an enclosure or supplied
through radiant heating units. In choosing a heat source,
it must be remembered that the concrete itself supplies
heat through hydration of cement; this is often enough
for curing needs provided the heat can be retained
within the concrete using insulation.
Duration of Heating
After concrete is in place, it should be protected and kept
at the recommended temperatures listed on Line 4 of
Table 17-1. These curing temperatures should be main-
tained until sufficient strength is gained to withstand
exposure to low temperatures, anticipated environment,
and construction and service loads. The length of protec-
tion required to accomplish this will depend on the cement
type and amount, whether accelerating admixtures were
used, and the loads that must be carried. Recommended
minimum periods of protection are given in Table 17-3.
The duration of heating structural concrete requiring full
service loading before forms and shores are removed
should be based on the adequacy of in-place compressive
strengths rather than an arbitrary time period. If no data
are available, a conservative estimate of the length of time
for heating and protection can be made using Table 17-3.
Moist Curing
Strength gain stops when moisture required for hydra-
tion is no longer available. Concrete retained in forms or
covered with insulation seldom loses enough moisture at
5°C to 13°C (40°F to 55°F) to impair curing. However, a
positive means of providing moist curing is needed to
offset drying from low wintertime humidity and from the
dry air produced by heaters used in enclosures during
cold weather.
Live steam exhausted into an enclosure around the con-
crete is an excellent method of curing because it provides
both heat and moisture. Steam is especially practical in
extremely cold weather because the moisture provided
offsets the rapid drying that occurs when very cold air
is heated.
Liquid membrane forming compounds can be used for
early curing of concrete surfaces within heated enclosures.
Terminating the Heating Period
Rapid cooling of concrete at the end of the heating period
should be avoided. Sudden cooling of the concrete surface
while the interior is still warm may cause thermal
341
Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting
cracking, especially in massive sections such as bridge
piers, abutments, dams, and large structural members;
thus cooling should be gradual. A safe temperature differ-
ential between a concrete wall and the ambient air temper-
ature can be obtained from ACI 306R-10. The maximum
uniform drop in temperature throughout the first 24 hours
after the end of protection should not be greater than the
amounts given in Table 17-2. Gradual cooling can be ac-
complished by lowering the heat or by simply shutting
off the heat and allowing the heat to dissipate.
Form Removal and Reshoring
It is good practice in cold weather to leave forms in place
as long as possible. Even within heated enclosures, forms
serve to distribute heat more evenly and help prevent
drying and local overheating.
If the curing temperatures listed on Line 4 of Table 17-1
are maintained, Table 17-3A can be used to determine the
minimum time in days that vertical support for forms
should remain in place. Before shores and forms are re-
moved, fully stressed structural concrete should be tested
to determine if in-place strengths are adequate. In-place
strengths can be monitored using one of the following:
(1) field-cured cylinders (ASTM C31 or AASHTO T 23);
(2) probe penetration tests (ASTM C803, Standard Test
Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete);
(3) cast-in-place cylinders (ASTM C873, Standard Test
Method for Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders Cast
in Place in Cylindrical Molds); (4) pullout testing (ASTM
C900, Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened
Concrete); or (5) maturity testing (ASTM C1074, Standard
Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity
Method). Many of these tests are indirect methods of mea-
suring compressive strength; they require correlation in
advance with standard cylinders before estimates of in-
place strengths can be made.
If in-place compressive strengths are not documented,
Table 17-3B lists conservative time periods in days to
achieve various percentages of the standard laboratory
cured 28-day strength. The engineer issuing project draw-
ings and specifications in cooperation with the formwork
contractor must determine what percentage of the design
strength is required (see ACI Committee 306R-10). Vertical
forms can be removed sooner than shoring and temporary
falsework (ACI Committee 347).
Maturity Concept
The maturity concept is based on the principle that strength
gain in concrete is a function of curing time and tempera-
ture. The maturity concept, as described in ACI 306R-10
and ASTM C1074 can be used to evaluate strength devel-
opment. Two maturity methods to estimate the in-place
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 342

Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

concrete strength are shown in Table 17-5. The first method
is based on the Nurse-Saul function, also called Time-
Temperature Factor method. This method is simple and
very popular. However, it fails to recognize the fact that
maturity increases disproportionately at elevated temper-
atures and that this increase depends on the type(s) of
cementitious materials used and the water-to-cementi-
tious materials ratio. Therefore, the Time-Temperature
Factor method typically underestimates the strength de-
velopment at elevated temperatures. The “Equivalent
Age” maturity function is based on the Arrhenius equa-
tion; this function presents maturity in terms of equivalent
age of curing at a specified temperature.
Table 17-5. Time-Temperature Factor and Equivalent Age Maturity
Equations
Time-Temperature M = maturity index, °C-hours
Factor T = average concrete temperature,
°C, during the time interval t
depths in the concrete. The location giving the lowest
values provides the series of temperature readings to
be used in the computation (Figure 17-26).
See Figure 17-27 for an example using the maturity con-
cept. Before construction begins, a calibration curve is
drawn plotting the relationship between compressive
strength and the maturity factor for a series of test cylin-
ders (of the particular concrete mixture proportions) cured
in a laboratory and tested for strength at successive ages.
The maturity concept is imprecise and somewhat limited.
However, the concept is useful in checking the curing of
concrete and in estimating strength in relation to time and
temperature. It presumes that all other factors affecting
concrete strength have been properly controlled. With
these limitations in mind, the maturity method has gained
greater acceptance as a surrogate for measuring the com-
pressive strength of the concrete for removal of shoring

M =∑(T – T0 ) t
T0 = datum temperature (usually or opening a pavement to traffic. It is no substitute for
taken to be 0 °C)
t
quality control and proper concreting practices (Gajda
0 t = elapsed time, hours 2007, Malhotra 1974, and ACI Committee 347).
t= time intervals, hours
Equivalent te = equivalent age at the reference
Age temperature
E = apparent activation energy,
J/mol (see ASTM C1074 for
typical values)
R = universal gas constant, 8.314
1 1
t e =∑e
t –E
 – 
J/mol-K
R  Tr T T = average concrete temperature,
t
0 Kelvin, during the time interval
t
Tr = absolute reference temperature,
Kelvin
t= time intervals, hours

The Time-Temperature Factor method presents maturity

in terms of °C • hr. Most maturity equipment uses a datum Figure 17-26. Downloading data from a maturity sensor embedded in
temperature of 0°C, which further simplifies the calcula- a pavement.
tion. Given this simplification, maturity is typically calcu-
lated using metric units.
Compressive strength, MPa Compressive strength, psi
To monitor the strength development of concrete in place 6000
40
using the maturity concept, the following information
35 5000
must be available:
30
25.3 MPa (3675 psi) Laboratory 4000
1. The strength-maturity relationship of the concrete 25 curve
used in the structure. The results of compressive 20
3000
strength tests at various ages on a series of cylinders 15
3600°C • hr
(6480°F • hr) 2000
made of a concrete similar to that used in the struc-
10
°C • hours
ture; this must be done to develop a strength-matu- 5
1000
rity curve. These cylinders are cured in a laboratory 1000 3000 5000 7000 9000

at 23°C ± 2°C (73°F ± 3°F). 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
°F • hours
2. A time-temperature record of the concrete in place. Maturity, temperature • hours
Temperature readings are obtained by placing ex-
pendable thermistors or thermocouples at varying Figure 17-27. Maturity relation example.

342
Chap. 17 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 3:51 PM Page 343
References
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10, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
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Burg, Ronald G., The Influence of Casting and Curing
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Concrete, Research and Development Bulletin RD113,
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Gajda, John, Cold-Weather Construction of ICF Walls, R&D
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343
Chapter 17 ◆ Cold Weather Concreting
Kauer, J.A., and Freeman, R.L., “Effect of Carbon Dioxide
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Klieger, Paul, Curing Requirements for Scale Resistance of
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Concrete Strength, Research Department Bulletin RX103,
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Malhotra, V.M., “Maturity Concept and the Estimation of
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McNeese, D.C., “Early Freezing of Non-Air-Entrained
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Powers, T.C., Resistance of Concrete to Frost at Early Ages,
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