POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

MACHINE
ELEMENTS
(MEEN 30142)

Submitted By:

Quennan C. Cuesta

Section: BSME 3-1

Submitted to:

Engr. Armingol Morales

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College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

Quiz#1
1. Define / Explain

a.) Machine

A machine is a physical system that uses power to apply forces, control

motion, and perform an activity. The term often refers to mechanical devices
using engines or motors and natural biological macromolecules such as
molecular machines. Humans and animals, wind and water, chemical, thermal,
and electrical energy, as well as other natural forces, may push machines. In
addition, they include a collection of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to
generate a particular application of output forces and motion. In addition, they
may feature mechanical systems, sometimes known as computers and sensors,
which monitor activity and coordinate movement.

b.) Mechanism

The word mechanism combines geometrical entities that compose a

machine or its parts. Therefore, a mechanism may be described as a collection of
stiff or resistant things that are created and linked such that they move with
distinct relative movements concerning one another.
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c.) Crankshaft

In combination with the connecting rods, the crankshaft turns the

reciprocating action of the pistons into rotational motion.

In internal combustion engines, crankshafts consist of a set of cranks and

crankpins to which the connecting rods are joined.

Utilizing main bearings, the crankshaft revolves inside the engine block,
while crankpins rotate within connecting rods using rod bearings. Crankshafts
are typically formed of metal, with most contemporary crankshafts fashioned
from forged steel.

d.) Camshaft

The purpose of the camshaft is to open and shut the valves at the top of
each engine cylinder. Each cylinder contains at least two valves, one of which
pulls a combination of combustible air and fuel into the cylinder, which, when lit,
drives the piston downwards. As the piston rises back up in the cylinder, the other
exhaust valve opens to expel the combustion's exhaust gases.

The camshaft is an iron or steel rail that sits above the engine's cylinders.
The shaft is characterized throughout its length by egg-shaped projections known
as cam lobes, which are positioned at intervals and aligned with the valves. As
the camshaft rotates, the pointed end of each lobe makes contact with a lever
known as a "rocker arm" to open the engine valve. As the lobe's peak goes beyond
the rocker's arm, the valve shuts as the lever returns to its previous position.
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e.) Piston

The piston is a cylindrical component in reciprocating engines, pumps, gas

compressors, and pneumatic cylinders. An internal combustion engine is a
component of the combustion chamber propelled by the expanding gases of
combusting fuel. The connecting rod, which is attached to the crankshaft,
converts the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion. The cylinder head
seals the piston at the top and the engine block or sleeve at the bottom. Piston
rings between the piston and the cylinder provide a seal and lubrication to
decrease friction.

f.) Connecting Rod

A connecting rod is an engine component that serves as a lever arm to

transmit motion from the piston to the crankshaft. Connecting rods are typically
manufactured from a cast aluminum alloy and are intended to resist the dynamic
loads caused by combustion and piston movement. A piston pin links the
connecting rod's tiny end to the piston. The piston pin, often known as the wrist
pin, is the pivot point between the piston and connecting rod. Spring clips, also
known as piston pin locks, are used to secure the piston pin.

The connecting rod's large end is connected to the crankpin journal to

provide a pivot point on the crankshaft. Connecting rods may be manufactured as
either one- or two-piece components. A rod cap is the detachable portion of a two-
piece connecting rod that provides the crankpin journal with a bearing surface.
Two cap screws secure the rod cap to the connecting rod for installation and
removal from the crankshaft.
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g.) Rocker

In an internal combustion engine, a rocker's arm is a component of the

valvetrain that usually conveys the motion of a pushrod to the intake/exhaust
valve.

Automobile rocker arms are commonly fabricated from stamped steel or

aluminum in high-revving applications. Some rocker arms (called roller rockers)
include a bearing at the contact point to decrease wear and friction.

h.) Kinematic Chain

A kinematic chain consists of links joined by joints that permit relative

motion between them. In other words, it is regarded as a Kinematic Chain if there
are few links and relative motion. The kinematic chain is used to convert motion.
Furthermore, it comprises an assembly of links joined by moveable joints to
create a closed kinematic chain, with one link as the reference. Binary linkages
consist of only two shared parts. Moreover, ternary linkages are composed of
three components.

i.) Linkage

Linkage mechanisms are used everywhere for a variety of purposes and on

a variety of mechanisms. Mechanical links have existed for hundreds of years and
are used in several everyday objects.

A mechanical linkage mechanism consists of bodies linked to control

forces and motion. Since geometry is used to study the movement of a body or
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connection, the link is called stiffness. The connections between links are
modeled as allowing for optimal movements, such as pure rotation or sliding.

Mechanical linkages are available in a range of forms and designs. Each

has uses for which it is best suited and advantages over other mechanical
components. Either one or a few of the connections will be fixed; the movement
of the remaining links will define the pace and direction of the system. When using
a four-pin linkage, all motion occurs in a parallel plane. This is since no matter
which link is fixed, they all move in a predetermined manner relative to the pivot
or fixed point. Lengths of linkage bars and links may be altered to ensure that the
required movement distance is precise. This must be inspected and examined to
guarantee that it can withstand the mechanical system's load.

j.) Degrees of Freedom

The number of independent variables that characterize the probable

locations or movements of a mechanical system in space. Whether the
mechanism operates in two-dimensional or three-dimensional space, DOF
measurements presume it is stiff and unrestricted. The number of degrees of
freedom equals the total number of independent motions or displacements.

Two forms of motion apply to degrees of freedom: translational and

rotational. A movement that is both linear and non-rotating is referred to as
translational motion. The opposite of translational motion is rotational motion. An
unrestricted, rigid mechanism in two-dimensional space (planar space) may have
three degrees of freedom: two translational and one rotating.
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College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

2. Enumerate and explain the types of motion.

We might have noticed that different objects move differently. Some objects
move in a curved path, some in a straight path and a few others in a different way.
According to the nature of the movement, motion is classified into three types as
follows:

• Linear Motion
• Rotary Motion
• Oscillatory Motion
Linear Motion

In linear motion, the particles move from one point to another in either a
straight line or a curved path. The linear motion depending on the path of motion
is further divided as follows.

• Rectilinear Motion – The path of the motion is a straight line.

• Curvilinear Motion – The path of the motion is curved.
A few examples of linear motion are the motion of a train, football, the motion of a
car on the road, etc.

Rotatory Motion

Rotatory motion is the motion that occurs when a body rotates on its own
axis. A few examples of rotatory motion are as follows:

• The motion of the earth about its own axis around the sun is an
example of rotary motion.
• While driving a car, the motion of the wheels and the steering wheel
about its own axis is an example of rotatory motion.
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Oscillatory Motion

Oscillatory motion is the motion of a body about its mean position. A few
examples of oscillatory motion are:

• When a child on a swing is pushed, the swing moves to and fro about
its mean position.
• The pendulum of a clock exhibits oscillatory motion as it moves to and
fro about its mean position.
• The string of the guitar when strummed moves to and fro by its mean
position resulting in an oscillatory motion.

3. Give and discuss the different modes of transmission of motion

The motion transmission system is relaying the same type of motion from
one part of an object to another (rotational to rotational, translational to
translational)

Motion transmission systems contain A driver component that initiates the

motion and a driven component that receives the motion and transfers it. Some
systems might also contain intermediate components between the driver-driven
components.

Types of motion transmission systems

o Gear Train
o Chain and Sprocket
o Worm and Screw gear
o Friction Gears
o Belt and pulley
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Mechanical Engineering Department

Gear Trains
➢ Reversible

➢ Rotation alternates (switches) at each gear

➢ Gear teeth: teeth should be identical (same shape and space)

➢ Gear type:
• if parallel gears, use straight gears
• if perpendicular, use bevel gears
➢ Gear size:
• Larger gears rotate slower
• Smaller gears rotate faster
➢ When building a gear train, you must consider:
1. The Gear teeth(they must be evenly spaced, the same size and have the
same direction)
2. The Gear types (straight gears vs. bevel gears)
3. The Gear size (the higher the number of teeth, the slower the rotation)
The larger the diameter the slower the rotation
Chain and Sprocket
➢ Connects components that are far away from one another. The gears do not
mesh together; they are connected with a chain (or sprocket)
➢ Reversible

➢ Sprocket touching the same side of the chain turns in the same direction

➢ Advantage: can transfer at larger distances than gear trains

➢ Disadvantage: frequent lubrication is needed, the chain can slip

➢ When building a chain and sprocket, you must ensure that:

1. The teeth on the sprocket are identical.
2. The chain links must mesh easily with the sprocket’s teeth.
3. The system requires constant lubrication.
4. The smaller the sprocket the faster it turns.
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Mechanical Engineering Department

Worm and Screw gear

➢ Consists of one endless screw and at least a gear

➢ It is not reversible

➢ Worm is also called endless screw

➢ Groove of worm meshes with gear teeth

➢ Adv: Rotation is transferred through two different axes of rotation

➢ When building a worm and screw gear, you must ensure that:
1. The gear teeth match the worm’s grooves.
2. The driver must be the worm.
Friction Gears
➢ Similar to gear trains yet less efficient because the friction gears can slip.
➢ The larger the gear the slower the rotation

➢ Transmitted through friction between gears

➢ Gears can be positioned parallel or perpendicular

➢ Gears can be straight, beveled or spherical

➢ Advantage: Can be small

➢ Disadvantage: Materials must adhere well to each other for good friction and
high efficiency
Belt and pulley
➢ Pulleys contain a groove for the belt to fit

➢ Larger pulley = slower

➢ Smaller pulley = faster

➢ Advantage: No lubrication

➢ Disadvantage: The belt must adhere to pulleys to avoid slipping

➢ Pulleys connected by a belt
➢ Pulleys have a groove for the belt to fit
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➢ Can slip

➢ When building a belt and pulley system, you must ensure:

• Pulleys must contain a groove where the belt can fit.
• The belt must adhere to the pulleys.
• The smaller the pulley the faster it turns.

4. Give and explain the types of the pairing of the following.

a. Meshing gear teeth

Before gears were invented, humans utilized wheels to transmit the

rotation of one shaft to another with the assistance of friction. This was done
before gears were invented. The slippage that occurred after a specific torque
value while utilizing these frictional wheels was the most significant disadvantage
of employing them.

The frictional torque acted as a limiter on the greatest amount of torque

that could be transferred.

People started employing toothed wheels, which are more widely known as
cogwheels or gears today, to get around this constraint.

The primary objective of gearing systems is to eliminate slippage. Gear

meshing is a technique in which the teeth of one gear are fitted between the teeth
of the gear to which it is mated. This is why the process is done. When compared
to the area of the gear that is the core, the region of the gear that is the mesh is
more flexible. Because of this, taking into consideration the rigidity of the gear
mesh is vital when attempting to correctly capture the dynamics and vibrations
that occur inside the system.

The stiffness of the gear mesh is determined by several different

characteristics, and it is most significantly affected by the rotation of the gear.
Because of this, the issue is now considered to be nonlinear, and the continually
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variable gear mesh stiffness results in vibrations throughout the system. Noise is
emitted by the transmission system as a direct consequence of vibrations
occurring in its various components. As a result, determining the gear mesh
stiffness and incorporating it into the gear model are both very necessary steps.

b. Plate cam and roller

A device known as a cam and follower consists of a profiled form that is

positioned on a shaft and is responsible for moving a lever or follower. It is
possible to transform rotational motion into linear (reciprocating) motion with the
help of a cam and a follower. The reciprocating motion that occurs as a result of
the cam rotating causes the followers to rise and fall at regular intervals.

A cam is a body that moves in a reciprocating, oscillating or rotating motion

that is in touch with another body that also moves in a reciprocating or oscillating
motion. This second body is referred to as the follower. The contour of the cam is
determined not only by its own motion but also by the needed motion of the
follower and the form of the follower's contact face.

The mechanism that is created when a Cam and Follower combination is

used is what determines how the Cam and Follower system really functions.

c. Piston and Cylinder

In mechanical engineering, a piston and cylinder is a sliding cylinder with a

closed head (the piston) that is moved reciprocally in a slightly larger cylindrical
chamber (the cylinder), such as in an engine or pump, by or against the pressure
of a fluid. Plates are used to shut off both ends of the cylinder in a steam engine.
There is a provision for the piston rod, which is securely coupled to the piston, to
pass through one of the end cover plates using a gland and a stuffing box (steam-
tight joint).
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In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder is open at one end to allow

for free oscillation of the connecting rod, which connects the piston to the
crankshaft and closed at the other end by a plate called the head. The head closes
off one end of the cylinder. Spark plugs are in the cylinder head of spark-ignition
(gasoline) engines, and the fuel nozzle is typically located in the cylinder head of
compression-ignition (diesel) engines. The cylinder head is also the location of
the valves that control the admission of fresh air–fuel mixtures and the escape of
burned fuel on the majority of engines.

Cylinders are holes with a smooth finish that are found in the primary
structural component of an engine known as the block. The block is typically
constructed of cast iron or aluminum and houses the majority of the engine's
components. On some types of engines, the cylinders are lined by sleeves
(sometimes called liners), which may be swapped out if they show signs of wear.
These liners are not removable, although they may be rebored if necessary.
Centrifugally cast-iron liners are used in aluminum blocks, and they are inserted
in the mold at the same time the aluminum is being cast.

Rings for the pistons are often supplied as standard equipment. These are
circular rings made of metal that have grooves in them and are designed to fit into
the piston walls. They ensure that the piston fits securely within the cylinder. They
contribute to the formation of a seal, which helps stop the leaking of pressurized
gases surrounding the piston and stops lubricating oil from getting into the
combustion chamber.

d. Ball Bearing and Race

Ball bearings are a kind of rolling element that may reduce friction in
moving machine components while also facilitating motion in those parts. Steel,
plastic, ceramics, and a variety of other materials are among those that may be
utilized in the manufacturing process of ball bearings. Every kind of material has
a one-of-a-kind combination of characteristics that sets it apart from the others.
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There are also a large number of distinct types of ball bearings, such as angular
contact ball bearings, ball bearings made of steel, and deep groove ball bearings.
Some of these types of ball bearings can be further subdivided into additional
groups, with each subgroup being distinct from the others.

A ball bearing's material, load-carrying capability, size, and design all have
a role in determining the precise sort of application that may be performed with
that bearing. When choosing a ball bearing, one must thus take into account the
kind of material that was utilized in the manufacturing of the bearing. ball bearing,
the size of the ball bearing, the design of the ball bearing, and the load-carrying
capability of the ball bearing all need to be taken into consideration. The ball
bearing has to be appropriate for the application. based on the criteria that were
specified.

Balls are contained inside ball bearings, and races are simply pathways
that enable the balls to glide. while causing very little or no friction to be
generated. They provide a predetermined course for the balls to follow as they
roll. Races are necessary for ball bearings because they govern the individual
balls. In the case of races, the

Balls could roll along a predetermined route. When a ball bearing is

disassembled so that its races can be inspected, you will find that the middle of
each race has a groove that runs horizontally. This groove acts as a track for the
balls that are contained inside the bearing. Each race is constructed with a
groove that has a certain size in order to accommodate the balls that are used
with it.

Ball bearings are comprised of two races: the inner race and the outer race.
Outer races are those that are located on the outside of the balls, whilst inner
races are those that are located on the inside of the balls. The names of these two
types of races are self-explanatory. These two different kinds of races are located
on each side of the ball bearing, which contains the bearing's balls. Both an inner
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race, which is located inside the balls, and an outer race, which is located on the
exterior of the balls, are components of every ball bearing.

The balls in the bearing are contained inside the bearing by their inner and
outer races. If a bearing contains just an inner race or only an outer race, the balls
will not be confined within the bearing. The balls are contained inside a container
formed by the inner and outer races. In addition to this, they provide the balls with
a set of tracks on which they may roll so that the game can continue.

e. Screw thread system inner, and outer screw

A ridge with a consistent cross-section that is shaped like a helix and is

located on either the interior or exterior surface of a cylinder is what is known as
a screw thread. External threads are the ones that are found on bolts, studs, and
screws, whereas internal threads are the ones that are found on nuts and tapped
holes.

The profile of the thread, comprised of the crest, root, and flanks, is
referred to as the thread form. The thread form refers to the arrangement of the
thread in an axial plane. Crests may be found at the very top of the threads, roots
can be found at the very bottom, and flanks connect crests and roots. The basic
triangle is the triangle that is generated when the thread profile is stretched to a
point at both of the profile's crests and roots. The distance, measured in radians,
that separates the diameters of the steep crest and the sharp root constitutes the
height of the basic triangle.

The thread pitch is determined by measuring the distance, in a direction

perpendicular to the thread axis, between corresponding spots on neighboring
threads. The number of threads in an inch is how unified screw threads are
labeled. This is the amount of complete threads that may be found in a length of
threaded material measuring one inch. The space between each threads, or the
"pitch," is measured in millimeters when using metric threading.
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When looking at an internal thread from the side, the crests will show the
minor diameter, while the roots will show the major diameter. The main diameter
of an external thread may be found at the thread crests, whereas the minor
diameter can be found at the thread roots.

The angle formed by a flank and the axis that runs perpendicular to it is
referred to as the flank angle. The angles formed by the flanks of a thread are
frequently referred to as the "half-angle" of the thread; however, this phrase can
only be used accurately when the flanks of adjacent threads have similar angles,
or when the threads are symmetrical. The flank angle of unified screw threads is
30 degrees, and the threads themselves are symmetrical. Because of this, you'll
often hear them referred to as threads with a 60-degree angle.

5. Explain the effect of inversion of linkages in modifying of the parts

especially output motion of a system

Reversing the sequence of connections in a linkage mechanism may affect

component motion and system output. Linkages are mechanical systems that
employ joints to convey motion from an input point to an output point.

Inverted linkages reverse system input and output. If the input motion is
clockwise, the output is counterclockwise, and vice versa. This is advantageous
when the output motion is opposite the input motion. Inverting a linkage may turn
a wheel in the opposite direction in a machine.

Inverting connections change part motion. In a non-inverted linkage, part

motion is determined by order.

Connections and input direction. Inverting a connection reverses the

components' line of motion, which might affect their motion.

Inverting connections may also alter the input motion's rotational or linear
displacement. Once In a non-inverted linkage, input motion causes rotational or
linear displacement based on link length.
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However, when a linkage is inverted, the length of the links may have a different \
effect on the amount of rotational or linear displacement that happens during a \
specific input motion.

In conclusion, mechanical systems may regulate portion and output motion

by inverting links. Reversing the links in a linkage mechanism changes the input
and output movements, the components' course of motion, and the amount of
rotational or linear displacement during a particular input motion.

References:

··· - Laurea Magistrale in Ingegneria Meccanica. (n.d.). Retrieved January 24,

2023, from https://www.unife.it/ing/lm.meccanica

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Damping. Encyclopædia Britannica.

Retrieved January 24, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/damping

Admin. (2022, December 8). What is motion - motion definition, types of motion,
examples, video and faqs. BYJUS. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from
https://byjus.com/physics/introduction-to-
motion/#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20nature%20of,Oscillatory%20Motion