1.

Define Britain: geographically,

politically, historically

Full name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland

Great Britain: England, Wales, Scotland

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland: England, Wales, Scotland, Northern
Ireland

British Isles: England, Wales, Scotland, Northern

Ireland, Republic of Ireland, and all the other
island

GEOGRAPHICALLY:

-Its non-continental state located northwest off the coast of the continental Europe

-It is bordered by Atlantic Ocean, North sea and English channel

-mainly low lands with mountains at North

-the highest mountain is Ben Nevis, located in Scotland

-capital city: London-almost 10 mil

-overall UK has almost 69 mil

POLITICALY:

-It’s a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary democracy

-Its means that the head of the state is Queen(Elizabeth the 2th), but she doesn’t get to make
decisions about how the government is run, that job belongs to the prime minister(Rishi Sunak)

-The Government has the executive power (enforces the laws)

-The Legislative power is between two chambers of the Parliament: The House of Lords and The
House of Commons (they make the laws)

HISTORICALLY:

-they went trough gradual process of unification

- Played a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and
science

-They used to be the worlds biggest super power, they had colonies all over the world

-the British monarchy was established in the times of Anglo-Saxon England, and early medieval
Scotland

-it was settled by Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans

2.Define Britishness: the way the identity was created and challenged and its current state
-Britishness is the state of being British or embodying British characteristics or qualities such as:
habits, behaviours or symbols

-British identities were created due to the region where people lived and the religion they believed in

- people doubt what even is Britishness nowadays because of the mix of cultures that is in Britain

-some nationalist groups even say that Britishness is only for the indigenous people of the British
Isles

3.Land and settlement on British Isles: migration trends and the growth of cities

-the settlement was affected by a number of factors: water supply, defense, resources, hills/lowlands

-most of the people had settled in the south/southeast

-specially after the Industrial evolution, because all the factories were there, they moved from
villages to cities

-Nowadays people tend to move out of the cities, because of the prices

- Britain settled by waves of invaders and migrants: Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, and
Normans

-until the 18th century the population was sparsely distributed

-people migrated for jobs

-after WW2 people from Caribbean, Africa, Asia and other colonies started to move to the UK to
rebuilt it (Windrush generation)

-UK is among the most urbanized countries in the world

4.British settlement: Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Normans, Industrial revolution

CELTS- they probably came to UK 800 BC from Central Europe, they spoke the Celtic language, they
often traded with central Europe, and they were also building defensive hill fortresses

Romans- they originated in early Rome, the first invasion was in 55bc and it was lead by Emperor
Julius Cesar. They established roads, cities, and palaces. Religion in Roman Britain was generally
polytheistic, involving multiple gods and goddesses.

Anglo-Saxons- they had inhabited England in the early Middle Ages. They had migrated from
northern Europe. They gave the name England. They were Christians. They established charters and
laws. They started to form the English language

Vikings (8th to 11th century)- They came from Norway and mainly settled in Scotland and Ireland.
They were excellent traders and navigators. They were sailors and practically pirates. They were
great warriors. Their ships were decorated in the way, that was supposed to scar the others. They
had a lot of Gods, and goddesses. They founded Dublin

Normans (11th century)- they were originally members of Vikings, and people from Northern France.
Though the Normans converted to Christianity and adopted the French language, they continued to
display their Viking ancestors. They had major political, cultural and military impact on Medieval
Europe. Fortresses
Industrial Revolutin-began between the 18th and 19th century. Changing from farming and
handcrafting, to industry and machine manufacturing. The biggest changes of industrial revolution
were: invention of machines to do the work of hand tools, the use of steam and other kinds of
power, the adaptation of the factory system. People started moving from villages to cities, because
of the work. It made the country prosper. Use of iron, steel, electricity, petroleum.

5.Formation of the United Kingdom: its phases (from feuding kingdoms to United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

-Scotland and England had separate Monarchs until 1603, when Elizabeth 1 st died with no
replacement

-the next in line was James 4th the king of scots, later known as James 1 st of England, he was also the
king of Ireland and of France at that time

-Scotland, England and Wales united by the Act of union(18 th century) passed by the Scottish
Parliament- Start of the United Kingdom of Great Britain

-Later(start of 19th century) the Irish parliament voted to join as well, so they became Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland

-but that changed some time after first WW when some parts of Ireland wanted to become
independent from Britain. It was because the union wasn’t popular among the people

6.British history: Middle Ages (1066 - 1485)

-introduction of Model Parliament – House of Lords and House of Commons

-Magna Carta (signed by king Johny)- Magna Carta was issued in June 1215 and was the first
document to put into writing the principle that the king and his government was not above the law.
It sought to prevent the king from exploiting his power, and placed limits of royal authority by
establishing law as a power in itself.

-Wars of Independence Edward stole Sacred Stone of Destiny Scotland/William Wallace people’s
army – executed, head on a pole on London Bridge

-First Black Death plague –firstly appeared in 14 th century. It was a bacterial disease that caused
fevers, headaches and vomiting. It was spreading quickly and there was no cure for it. Tons of people
were dying. Due to the poverty and filth spreading quickly. It came originally from Asia. It whipped
out 1/3 of the population

-The Hundred Years War-it was a war between England and France over territorial rights, it took 116
years, it firstly originated, because France denied England from getting the French throne, even
though there was no replacement. Black Death plague was happening in this era

-The Peasants Revolt begins- peasants wanted better working conditions

-first book was printed

7. British history: Reformation and Renaissance

-Big moment in 16th century. The English Reformation was part of a much larger movement called
the Protestant Reformation. During the Middle ages, almost everyone in Western Europe belonged
to the Catholic Church. This made the Church the most powerful political, social and cultural
authority at that time. Key person in the British reformation was King Henry 8th who was a big
Catholic at the beginning, but that had change, when the pope declined his request to get divorce. So
Henry the 8th broke away from the Roman church and made himself the head of the Church of
England. This sparked a rise of Protestants in England. He made it because of Political, Economic, and
personal reasons. He wanted to divorce the wife, because she wasn’t able to give him a son. But he
was still a believed to the same things that the Roman church does, so the English Church wasn’t that
different, but after Henrys death it became more protestant. Effects of the reformation: o
Influence of European Reformation caused the English, Scottish and Welsh churches to move
away from Rome ́s doctrines (Martin Luther being against the Roman church in Germany). People
started questioning the Churches in general. The Monks were kicked out of their properties which
was later sold. Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. Openly Protestant believers were
persecuted. They were forced to convert back to Catholicism, leave the country, or were burned at
the stake (Because of Mary). Overall it let to people unsureness about religion. Henrys daughter
Elizabeth 1st made the English church protestant .

Renaissance: is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to
modernity. It wanted to break from the past. o Paintings, sculptures and architectures are almost
always produced by artists at the specific request of another person i.e. the patron (the King, the
Pope, a duke or a rich citizen). Reflecting the society ruled by class division. The most iconic portrait
of Elizabeth the Virgin Queen(it was hiding her feminine features, big bow on her genitals, her hand
on the Globe, simbolising her power, and crown besides her) - Imperial crown reflects her equality
with the Holy Roman Emperor and her status as Empress of the world. She was the Queen at that
time, she never got married and never lost her virginity, because she wanted to show her power. In
her times, England was protestant. She made the naval power prosper.

8.British history: 18th and 19th century

-also known as Victorian Britain (start of modern Britain?

-Slavary in the British empire was fully abolished. In connection to protests happening in Caribbean.
Over 700000 slaves were freed in the British Caribbean. Their formal owners received about 20
million pounds, but the slaves received nothing

-Income tax was firstly introduced for the first time during the peacetime. Direct taxation was
unpopular in Victorian Britain. Many 19th-century finance ministers toyed with the idea of abolishing
income tax, but it proved too convenient and too lucrative to lose.

-Vaccination for the poor is introduced- Parliament enabled local poor law authorities to provide
vaccination at the expense of ratepayers. Battles over the ethical and practical issues involved lasted
for the remainder of Victoria's reign. Some authorities were reluctant to pay, even after infant
vaccination was made compulsory in 1853;

-Crimean War- war between Russia and Britain, France and Turkey who feared Russian expansion in
the Balkans. Russia was forced to sue for peace, and the war was ended. Diseases killed more Russian
soldiers than the actual battles. After surrendering, Russian had to agree on few measures : Black see
would remain demilitarized, Russia would loose bit of land, and they would no longer be the
protectors of Christian

-Women obtain limited rights to retain their property after marriage-before that, the property was
automatically transferred to the control of a husband. Women also got permitted to retain up to 200
pounds of their own wages, before that they had to give it all to the husband. Some time later,
Married women obtained the right to acquire their own property

-Education becomes compulsory for children under ten

-industrial revolution

-act of union

-The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

-seven year war

-Biggest empire(Splendid isolation)

9.Define Reformation: the ways it transformed the English / British society

-Big moment in 16th century. The English Reformation was part of a much larger movement called the
Protestant Reformation. During the Middle ages, almost everyone in Western Europe belonged to
the Catholic Church. This made the Church the most powerful political, social and cultural authority
at that time. Key person in the British reformation was King Henry 8 th who was a big Catholic at the
beginning, but that had change, when the pope declined his request to get divorce. So Henry the 8 th
broke away from the Roman church and made himself the head of the Church of England. This
sparked a rise of Protestants in England. He made it because of Political, Economic, and personal
reasons. He wanted to divorce the wife, because she wasn’t able to give him a son. But he was still a
believed to the same things that the Roman church does, so the English Church wasn’t that different,
but after Henrys death it became more protestant. Effects of the reformation: o Influence of
European Reformation caused the English, Scottish and Welsh churches to move away from Rome ́s
doctrines (Martin Luther being against the Roman church in Germany). People started questioning
the Churches in general. The Monks were kicked out of their properties which was later sold.
Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. Openly Protestant believers were persecuted. They
were forced to convert back to Catholicism, leave the country, or were burned at the stake (Because
of Mary). Overall it let to people unsureness about religion. Marys sister Elizabeth 1 st made the
English church protestant

10.British Empire: its formation, character, distinctiveness

The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English Settlement of
North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of join-stock
companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade

British Empire: it began with the overseas possessions and trading post established by England
between the late 16th and 18th centuries

- in UKs peak it was the largest empire in history

the Navigation Act 1651 ment that all colonial exports had to be shipped on English ships to the
British market

British Empire had a rival - France, they were fighting over colonies in North America half of the 18th
century

in 1922 it was the largest empire the world had ever seen, a quarter of Earth’s land surface and ruling
over 458 million people
the power and wealth that Britain gained as it built its empire came at a price: indigenous peoples -
tribes and communities who had lived of colonized places:

- North America: local people robbed of their land and faced violence and death

- India: famines during 2 WW coz Britain took supplies

- Africa: robbed of valuable materials like gold and salt, Slave trade

- Australia: beliefs, language and tradition replaced, cultural identities removed

Legacy:

Products (sugar, coffee, tobacco, cocoa and chocolate (from the Americas), tea, rice (from India) and
rubber (from Malaya))

Hindi words from India including “bungalow”, “veranda”, and “pyjamas”

Measurement, sports, left-side driving

The main economies of the Commonwealth are financially stable

English language (primary 400 mil., spoken half billion)

Education

Large migration

Ethnical and religious conflicts

Racism

11.British Empire: its colonies (the 1st and the 2nd Empire)

1st British Empire- from end of 16th to end of 18th century

-established colonies in Canada, America and West India

Colonies in the New World were a part of building an anti-Spanish, anti-Catholic Empire in the west, a
heaven for religious and political dissenters.

England wanted to share in the lucrative trade developing in the East.

East India company founded – intent of trading with spice islands – the East Indies.

Slaves transported from West Africa via the middle passage to plantations of America and the West
Indies. Proceeds from the sale of the slaves used to buy slave-produced cash crops (cotton, sugar,
tobacco, rum), loaded into the slave ships and sent to Britain for sale, or for re-export to other
Europeans markets.

Seven years war – first true world war (1756-63) Britain beat its enemies France and Spain – Britain –
new colonies in Caribbean, and evicted the French from North America. It was a territorial war

2nd Empire

-after Britain won the Seven Years War, it needed to rise taxes to cover battle expenses in their
colonies – there was a wave of protests in America which led to Boston Tea Party

Australia :
1788 the first fleet of eleven British ships. British prisoners were the ones living in Australia.
Important sheep farming. Ton of gold strikes

New Zealand :

-end of 18th century, important for sheep and farming. Both Australia and New Zeland are
independent, but in commonwealth (54 independent countries, that are independent, but loyal to
the Empire)

India :

-very valuable colony, most of the trades were with India.

Britain on a civilizing mission – Indian law, Landholding, tax systems, education, and social structures
scrutinized and often reformed.

Reforms aimed at creating a British-educated and British-employed Indian elite of collaborators/

considerable value in terms of trade.

American colonies:

They were important for tabaco, sugar and cotton, after creation of USA, the UK lost its colonies,
America was magnet for British religious and political immigrants

AFRICA:

probably the most important part was Suez Canal as French opened it, it was important for the
trade ,Britain have plenty of colonies in Africa

THE CARIBBEAN (West Indies):

opened up under the Tudors – 1620s first successful English colonies founded, there were wars
against Spain, France and Netherlands, but were won

these colonies important for sugar and tobacco plantations, but as European people couldn’t work
there because of the climate – slave labour (so called indentured servants – taken from their homes
for free to have better live opportunities, but they have to work for the one who took them, very
tough work, many of them usually died) – in 1807 by the Slave Trade Act, slave trade was abolished

China:

Britain ed the charge to open up insular kingdom / sought to access the products that it wanted / The
Opium Wars (1839-42 and 56-60) forced China to allow British traders to sell the drug opium into
China / treaty port systém emerged / Hong-Kong in 1841 and Kowloon in 1860.

12.British Empire in the 20th century: its dismantling and legacy

-by the beginning of 20th century Britain was no longer the worlds richest country. It went both
trough 1st ww and 2nd ww which left the country ruined and with no money. Economic depression in
the 30s and 70s. Pakistan and India got independent which was a huge loss for the UK. The Suez
incident was also a big toll on the British empire. People from formal colonies from Carabien came to
UK to rebuilt it after 2nd ww. The British national act-let the people from formal colonies become
citizens if they wanted to. Introduction of Welfare state, which was supposed to help people by
reforming education, and health care. Free national health care service was introduced. By
nationalization of coal mines, banks, electrical supplies and phones was the government able to get
the state under control. It created mixed economy. Council housing was introduced. Rise of low
art(POP art, street art), some of the most known bands of all times started popping up. Also the
Bellfast incident. Legacy: they made their mark all over the world, and brought their culture there.
They made English a world wide language. They made big boom with the inventions, literature, art,
railways all over the world. They made the parlamentory blue print for their colonies.

13.British political system: its main characteristics

- It’s a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary democracy

-there is no written constitution, but there are partly statuses and common law

-Its means that the head of the state is Queen(Elizabeth the 2th), but she doesn’t get to make
decisions about how the government is run, that job belongs to the prime minister(Borish Johnson)

-The Monarchs used to have full power, but that had changed with Magna carta which basically said
what monarchs can and cant do

-The Monarch can give Royal pardon, he also sings the laws, before they become functional, and he
can also open and close parliament

-The Government has the executive power (enforces the laws)

-The Legislative power is between two chambers of the Parliament: The House of Lords and The
House of Commons (they make the laws)

-There are 3 main political parties: Conservatives, Labour and Liberal Democrats, and they are all
represented in the House of Commons

-the political left prefers liberal values, the political right prefers conservative values, and the political
center is the blend of both viewpoints

-Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland has its own government with limited powers, the major
authority is still UK parliament itself, mostly just for regional problems

14.British political system: the cabinet, the parliament

-the cabinet is a team of 20 or so most senior ministers in the Government who are chosen by the
Prime minister to lead specific policy areas such as Health, transport, foreign affairs or defence. They
mostly take care of major political issues. They carry out the program of government, and major
ideas that are then discussed in the Parliament. They have collective responsibility.

-The Parliament works in the House of Parliament and it has two chambers, The House of Lords, and
House of Commons. Its role is to approve, make and change countries laws and policies, to control
government.

The House of Commons- the members are elected by public every 5 years (you need to be 18+, not in
prison, and not a lord). It consist of 650 members known as members of parliament. They debates
important issues, makes and reviews the laws, represents the public and holds the government to
account. It’s the more important house. There are the political parties with their ministers. (the
government party on one side, the opposition on the other)
The House of Lords-The seats used to be inherited from one lord to another, but that had changed.
Nowadays anybody can be in the House of Lords because of their achievements in certain
areas(scientist, inventors, etc). They are chosen by the Queen and prime minister. They challenge the
government from their outside perspective. There is 800 lords, but they don’t go to every sitting.
They only attend those they know and can challenge. They challenge the government, they talk to
commons to shape the laws. (the government party on one side, the opposition on the other)

15.British political system: major political parties (in all four constituent countries), FPTP system

- There are 3 main political parties: Conservatives, Labour and Liberal Democrats, and they are all
represented in the House of Commons

-the political left prefers liberal values, the political right prefers conservative values, and the political
center is the blend of both viewpoints

-The British political system is a two party system. Since the 1920s, the two dominant parties have
been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party

Conservative party- Generally standing for lower taxation, a smaller and lower welfare, The
Conservative Party is the traditional right-wing party in the UK, Notable figures Winston Churchill,
Margaret Thatcher

Labour party-huge role in creating Welfare state, and they are also behind the national health
service. They stand for social justice, and equality of opportunity, state ownership,

Liberal Democrats-hugely popular among students, free and open society

FPTPprinciple - the candidate who receives more than any other but does not receive an absolute
majority. of votes is the winner of the congressional seat. The losing party or parties win no
representation at all

In Wales the most popular is the Labor party

In Scotland it’s the Scottish national party (wants Scotland to be independent)

In England Convervative and Labor

In Ireland Social Democratic and Labor

16.British foreign policies: from the Middle Ages to the 21st century

- first Empire strategic, not primary territory desire, more strategic places: Malta, Gibraltar,
Ascension Island, St. Helena, Bermuda, the Leeward, Rio de Janeiro, the Falkland Islands, Hong Kong,
Sydney .. - not to significant geographically but strategic value

- through the era of the Pax Britannica until 20th century no other country in the world operated a
naval base outside home waters, Britain had almost forty

- mid-nineteenth century: Britain most evolved industrial economy, most international

- Europe accounted for about a third of imports and exports, the rest was with the world: US, India,
Latin America.. (2. empire)

- 3. empire: empire of territory and dominion: colonies in Canada, Australia, India

- the ideology was: Britain is the prime vesel for her God-given role as bringer of civilization
- British Empire was born of weakness, a response to competition, the defensive reaction to a
changing world

-Splendid Isolation (19th century)

Today:

Foreign and defense policy

· Engaged in wars and peacekeeping duties

· Particular bias: ́Special relationship ́ with USA – Britain ́s closest ally

· Member of the EU, but its own policy priorities - BREXIT

· Permanent member of the UN Security Council

· Alliance with North Atlantic Treaty Organization

· Nuclear weapons

· Also, wars outside the NATO area (Falklands War, Gulf War, War in Afghanistan) -

· Britain more in line with traditionally lower-spending continental powers

17.Britain becoming a superpower / Britain losing its status

-the fact that it was a island was a great advantage, because the likelihood of invasions was low

-Britain was the biggest empire that world has ever seen

-world’s foremost power throughout the late 18th and 19th century and largest extend in 20th
century

-they had colonies all over the world

-they also had the biggest naval power in the world, skilled sailors, they invested more money to
ships and guns than any other country

-big focus on the world trade

-Splended isolation(19th century)

- Britain had: the best trained men, the best officers, most modern ships, most technologically
cutting-edge, ships that were thanks to their copper bottoms able to spend most time at sea and
least time in the port, the best infrastructure at home, the strongest political support, the best range
of facilities overseas

- on the sea Britain was the superpower's superpower, a hyperpower before its time

Why did Britain fall from power?

-collonies started to riot, had to be processed by military power

- The First and Second World Wars left Britain weakened and less interested in its empire

-great depression in 30s

- many parts of the empire contributed troops and resources to the war effort and took an
increasingly independent view -> this led to a steady decline of the empire after 1945

- the Suez Crisis of 1956 is considered the beginning of the end of Britain's period as a superpower-
Britain had to leave Egypt

- World War I, the Depression of 1920-21, the Partition of Ireland, the return of the pound sterling to
the gold standard at its prewar parity in 1925, the loss of wealth from World War II, the end of Lend-
Lease Aid from the United States in 1945, the postwar Age of Austerity, the Winter of 1946–47, the
beginning of decolonization and the independence of British India -> other key points in Britain's
decline and loss of superpower status

18.British immigration: immigration policies, minorities

-migration was always part of the UK because of the Empire. People were consistently coming in and
out to the colonies. Sometimes was migration needed because of war. In the 16 th, 17th and early 18th
century Protestants were coming to Britain because of their religion, because it was not accepted in
their country. In the 19th century, people started coming to Britain from their colonies. And the mass
migration started in the 20th century, especially after second world war. People from former colonies
were coming to Britain to repair it after second world war.(Windrush generation). They were told,
that they could become the citizens of the country, if they wanted to come (zjednodušený obsah The
British national act). Now people come to UK to start a new life, because of wars, economical, gender
or sexuality reasons. When The UK was part of the EU, people from EU could migrate there/emigrate
from UK easily.

-Immigration policies: Assimilation- 1900s to 1950s, immigrants had to accept the language and
customs of the country

Integration- 1960s to 1980s

Multiculturalism- 1980s till now

Race Relations Act 1968 – it was illegal to refuse housing, employment or public service to a person
because of his or hers colour

Home Office hostile environment policy- staying in the United Kingdom as difficult as possible for
people without leave to remain

19.British economy: from free trade and laissez faire to nationalization and privatization

-before the industrial revolution it was mostly about manual farming and breeding, but with the
boom of industrial revolution the market switched to working and making stuff in factories

-free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports.The openness to free trade was
substantially increasing till the outbreak of WW 1. It was really important, because of it strong
manufacturing base. They felt that they depended on its ability to sell its good in world. But UK found
it more difficult to compete with the overseas producers. People were criticizing Laissez-faore-
economic system in which transformation between private groups of people are free or almost free
from any economic interventions such as regulation. It was supported mainly by the liberal party.
Nationalists prefer protectionism. Laissez-faire: until the 1940s, policy that allows business to be
operated with very little inverventions of the government, let it be- we shouldn’t help the economy,
it will do it self. But that had changed after the second WW. The country was needed to be rebuild so
they decided to nationalize some parts of the economy like: electricity supply, water supple, railways,
phones and by doing that they managed to get the country back together. It made a mixed economy.

Than with Margaret Thatcher the privatization was popularized, which means that some economic
parts that were owned by the state went to private hands. Railways for example

Terciary sector is the most beneficial one

20.British economy : major industries in the past and now

-UK has the second largest economy in Europe, they are the 6 th largest exporter and 6th largest
importer in the world as of 2020, UK is highly dependent on foreign trade

-they used to be mainly focused on organic agriculture, but that had changed with industrial
revolution

-In the 1600s the major industry was textile industry (cotton coming from colonies)

-Britain has transformed from agricultural economy to high-tech, industrialised, globalised society

-Novadays they are big on agriculture and fishing, finance (London stock exchange), Manufacturing
and tourism

-UK mainly exports oil, vehicles and precious metals

21.Modern Britain: challenges / issues that need to be tackled

-housing crisis: extremely high prices of houses/flats in the cities. There is no way for a young
working person to get on the housing market. To get to that market, people buy shares of the houses
and pay rent on top of that.

-criminality among youth: mostly connected with gang activities, drug use/selling

-Covid recession: people losing jobs, business closing, and everything connected with it

-Teenage pregnancy

-Labour market: due to covid

22.UK’s constituent countries: divisions and identities

-UK has 4 constituent coutries: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland.

ENGLAND- the capital city is London. Located in the south/southeast, most densely populated. Its
rather flat, no big mountains. In the south are located some important ports(Dover, Brighton). A lot
of industrial cities. We can find there Stonehenge or Hadrian’s wall (north of England)

Wales-the capital city is Cardiff. Located in the Southwest. The North of Wales is hilly, lots of stone
castles and national park. The south where most people live, its also the industrialized part. Welch
language and culture remains.

SCOTLAND- the capital city is Edinburgh. In the south on borders with England its rather flat and
industrialized, but hilly in north. The people who live in the highlands call themselves highlanders.
Famous for fishing and whiskey.

NORTHERN IRELAND- the capital city is Belfast. The area around the capital is industrialized, further
away agricultural. They used to part of Republic of Ireland, but that had changed in the 1920s
IDENTITIES AND DIVISIONS:

England- people don’t identify themselves as British, but more likely regional identities based mostly
on city or area

Wales- national and cultural identity, mostly identify as Welsch

Scotland- national, cultural and regional identity, mostly identify as Scottish

Northern Ireland- regional and religious identity

23.Class system: its origins and evolution

-England was always class conscious country, although they claim the opposite

-it originated as a hierarchy based on wealth, political power and family you were born in

-until 18th century there were only 2 classes: workers and aristocracy, and people weren’t able to
move from one class to another, but that changed with the Industrial revolution, because it brought
ton of opportunities (middle class started around this time)

-self-mobility=self-made man, which means that even you are not born in a wealthy family you can
climb the class leader thank to for example education and your hard work

-social-mobility=spread of education and distribution of wealth

-Then in 1980s Margaret Thatcher came with her idea of MERITOCRACY- basing people on talent,
effort, achievements rather than on wealth or social class

-nowadays its not really about how much money you have, but rather about opportunities(main
factors are education or marriage)

-nowadays we differ mainly between lower class, working class, middle class, and upper class

24.Class system: its indicators and social mobility

-nowadays we differ mainly between lower class, working class, middle class, and upper class

LOWER CLASS-this class is typified by poverty, homelessness, and unemployment. Few people who
have finished high school, lack of medical care, housing and food.

THE WORKING CLASS- are those people who do manual labor. Mostly workers with little experience:
dishwashers, cashiers, maids-usually are underpaid and there is little to none career advancement.
They are often called working poor. But also more skilled workers are in this class- carpenters,
electricians, plumbers. They are often called Blue collar workers. In this class we can find workers
that make more money than people in middle class such as teachers, secretarians, computer
technicians, however their jobs don’t go with the standards of middle class

MIDDLE CLASS- also known as sandwich class, it is also the biggest class. We can divide it to two
levels. Lower Middle class- is often made out of lower incomes, such as managers, small business
owners. The upper middle class is often made up of highly educated business people such as doctors,
lawyers, CEOs.

UPPER CLASS- only 1-3% of people. People here are extremely rich. They live in excusive
neighborhoods, and their children go to finest schools. We can divide them to Lower upper class- it
include those people with new money, or money made from investments. So they made the money
themselves. The upper upper class consist of people with old money. It means they had inherited
the money from their family.

-self-mobility=self-made man, which means that even you are not born in a wealthy family you can
climb the class leader thank to for example education and your hard work

- social-mobility=spread of education and distribution of wealth

25.Art as the reflection of the era and society

-before medieval times mostly about religious painting to spread a religious believes, the people
making them weren’t considered artists

-but that changed in the medieval times, when artist became more socially accepted. People started
to pay them to draw them, but the art was only for upper class, because they were the only ones
who could afford that

-in the 18th century artists started to experimenting with new techniques, realism before that

-it is also important to say, that not only painters are artists. Musicians, sculptors, writers, actors

-In the 20th century there was rise of low art(the type of art not connected with education) it was
mainly because arts schools opened for every class. They were tired of the old styles so they started
to experimenting. Rise of POP art, surrealism, and some got back to Realism. They were often
depicting social problems of that era. Some were tightly connected with music. In the later 20 th
century rise of street art (Banksy). For me the most interesting are the Murals in Belfast depicting the
tragic history. It is referred to as a battle between Catholics, and Protestants, but it wasn’t mainly
about the religion. Catholics wanted to leave leave the UK, but Protestants wanted to stay.