DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS OF NIGERIAN CLAY IN OIL

DRILLING USING SAMPLES

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the Study
Natural clay is an earthy substance that is soft while wet and rigid when dried. It mostly consists of
organic particles, quartz, and hydrated aluminum silicates. It is a substance with an extremely tiny
grain that is found in sedimentary rocks, soils, and other deposits. With a diameter of less than
0.0039mm, clay particles are smaller than silt. It is a hard, clingy sedimentary substance that becomes
supple and malleable when wet. It turns pliable when wet, but hardens and becomes brittle when
heated. Clay comes in a variety of forms, including attapulgite, hylloysite, and kaolite. Attapulgite is
a type of clay, although it differs significantly from other types of clay used in drilling mud. It is
mined in Georgia and Florida and sold in this country for use in drilling mud. Clay is used for making
pottery and in the manufacture of bricks, cement and ceramics (Karnland et al, 2006). A lot of clay is
used to manufacture tiles, pottery, and bricks. Attapulgite clay was described as having a fibrous
structure by Schicks (1972) and Azeez (2004), as opposed to the platelet- or at least lath-shaped
particles of the majority of other clays. The possibility of needle-shaped particles with cross-sectional
dimensions dispersing in water under favorable conditions is similar in magnitude to that of the unit
cell, and this results in a type of plasticity that appears to be of the brush-heap type, quite in contrast
to the gels produced by swelling of montmorillonite. Attapulgite suspensions have the intriguing and
useful trait of having shear strength and viscosity that are completely independent of the
concentration of electrolyte, in addition to being only weakly thixotropic as might be predicted from
their structure.

One of the main energy sources on which many devices, including cars, generators, and others, rely
on petroleum. Its significance cannot be emphasized enough. Hydrocarbons, a complex oily mixture
that occurs in nature, are what we call petroleum. Sedimentary rocks have a strong association with
almost all hydrocarbon (oil and gas) deposits found within the Earth's crust. In other words,
hydrocarbons are modified organic compounds made of microscopic plant and animal leftovers
(called Classic sediments). The majority of significant depositions (hydrocarbons, HCS) happened
during ocean migration activities in the marine environment. Clay protects the organic compounds
found in buildings, and silt sediments accompany them during deposition. The amount of HCS that
can be created depends on how much organic material is present in a deposit. The efficiency of the
change to basic HCS throughout geologic time increases with the rate of organic burial by sediments.
Pressure, temperature, and bacterial activity on a closed, non-oxidizing chemical system (known as
Dynamic Equilibrium) aid in the conversion of organic matter to HCS. Aerobic bacteria will degrade
organic materials if the burial action is insufficient to completely remove oxygen, but if oxygen is
removed, anaerobic bacteria action involving oxygen from dissolved air and sulphates will start with
the establishment of a reducing environment.

Three primary source rocks are thought to be responsible for the oil and gas (hydrocarbons) deposit.
First off, there are a lot of deposits of silt, clay, and organic materials around ocean margins, which
are likely sediments that can lessen the environment for organic materials to change. This leads to the
production of shale rock, which is then cemented throughout the course of geological time. Black
shale that was initially deposited in a calm, non-oxidizing sea environment is the best type of source
rock. The deposits in almost pre-carbonate sedimentary rocks that lead to carbonate rocks known as
limestones are the second source of rocks. The third source of rock deposits are evaporated rock salts,
such as gypsum or anhydrite, which once had a high organic percentage.

We must drill oil wells through the rocks to extract the oil in order to reach the oil reserves. Some
wells have a depth of more than two miles and can extend more than eight miles in either direction.
Without specially formulated drilling fluids, these wells cannot be perfectly drilled into. The
substance known as drilling fluid is used to facilitate the drilling of earthen boreholes. It is a drilling
fluid used in exploration drilling rigs to drill oil and gas wells. The three primary types of drilling
fluids are gaseous drilling fluid, non-aqueous oil-based mud, and water-based mud that can be
distributed. We must drill oil wells through the rocks in order to reach the oil deposits and extract the
oil. Some wells can extend more than eight miles in both directions and are deeper than two miles.
Without specially formulated drilling fluids, these wells cannot be penetrated precisely. The fluid
known as drilling fluid is used to facilitate the drilling of boreholes into the earth. In exploration
drilling rigs, it is a fluid that is used to drill oil and gas wells. Water-based mud, which may be
disseminated, oil-based mud, which is non-aqueous, and gaseous drilling fluid are the three primary
categories of drilling fluids.

1.2. Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this work is to determine the suitability of locally available clay in drilling fluid
formulation using laboratory analysis.
These are the aims of the experiment

1. Source, process and characterize the local raw clay

2. Determine the physiochemical properties of the local clay

3. Upgrade the clay to API standard

4. Examine the impact of the stepwise increase in the concentration of the mud and additives on the
drilling fluid rheological properties.

1.3. Scope of Study

This research would be done by specifically carrying out a Laboratory test analysis to determine the
suitability of locally available clay. The clays would be compared to foreign or imported clay and to
enable cost effective drilling of oil wells using locally clay in mud formulations. The compared clay
would be used for drilling fluid formulation in Nigeria.

1.4. Problem Statement

The main ingredients of water-based mud are water, bentonite clay, and various weighing agents
including barite and calcium carbonate that have characteristics like apparent viscosity, plastic
viscosity, and yield point. These are crucial in creating effective and efficient drilling operations.
These characteristics serve the purposes of cooling and lubricating the rotating drill string and bit as
well as cleaning the rock pieces from beneath the bit and transporting them to the surface. (Afolabi et
al., 2017). Bentonite imports for oil and gas drilling continue to alter the enormous quantity of foreign
money available for Nigeria's socioeconomic stability budget. (Hu et al., 2017). The enormous
amount of foreign currency available for use in Nigeria's socioeconomic stability budget is constantly
being altered by the importation of bentonite for drilling in the oil and gas industry. (Falode et al.,
2008). Despite having numerous mineral reserves all throughout Nigeria, bentonite has not been
widely utilized because of significant water loss and a poor swelling index. (Afolabi et al., 2017).

1.5. Relevance of the Study

In order to lower the cost of importing foreign clay, this research is required. The savings would be
put toward expanding drilling operations abroad. The accomplished clay would be kept in order to
provide cost-effective control while drilling oil and gas wells in Nigeria using this locally sourced
clay in mud formulation.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Drilling and Drilling Fluids
To produce a well for the production of oil and natural gas, a hole is created using a drill bit. There
are numerous types of oil wells, each serving a particular purpose: Drilled for exploratory purposes in
uncharted territory are exploration wells, often known as wildcat wells. Geologists choose the
placement of the exploratory well. Drilled appraisal wells evaluate a proven petroleum reserve’s
characteristic, such as flow rate. In fields with economically viable and recoverable reserves of oil or
gas, development or production wells are dug. When a production well blows out, relief wells are dug
to halt the flow from a reservoir. To maintain reservoir pressure or to reduce the viscosity of the oil so
that it may flow into a neighboring well, petroleum engineers can inject steam, carbon dioxide, and
other substances into an oil producing unit through an injection well. Drilling an oil and natural gas
production well entails a number of crucial procedures, including: (Annis & Smith, 1996)

2.1.1. Boring – Petroleum engineers can inject steam, carbon dioxide, and other materials into an oil
producing unit using an injection well in order to either maintain reservoir pressure or to reduce the
viscosity of the oil, allowing it to flow into a neighboring well. There are several critical processes in
drilling an oil and natural gas producing well.

2.1.2. Circulation – For a variety of purposes, including the removal of rock shavings from the hole
and the maintenance of operating pressures and temperatures, drilling mud is circulated into the hole
and back to the surface.

2.1.3. Casing – once the hole is at the desired depth, the well requires a cement casing to prevent
collapse.

2.1.4. Completion – A well needs to be prepared for production after it has been cased. To provide a
pathway for the oil or gas to flow, tiny holes known as perforations are drilled in the part of the casing
that went through the production zone.

2.1.5. Production – this is the phase of the well’s life where it actually produces oil and/or gas.

2.1.6. Abandonment – when a well has reached the end of its useful life (this is usually determined
by economics), it is plugged and abandoned to protect the surrounding environment.

2.2. Drilling Fluids

Drilling fluid, commonly known as drilling mud, is used in geotechnical engineering to facilitate the
drilling of boreholes into the earth. Drilling fluids are frequently employed for drilling water wells,
oil, and natural gas wells, as well as on exploration drilling rigs. Cuttings are one of the things that
drilling mud is used for.
Water-based muds (WBs), which can be dispersed or not, non-aqueous muds, also known as oil-based
muds (OBs), and gaseous drilling fluid, which can contain a variety of gases, are the three basic kinds
of drilling fluids. These are utilized for drilling various oil and gas formations along with their
formatives and the proper polymer and clay additives.

In order to prevent formation fluids from entering the well bore, drilling fluids must exert hydrostatic
pressure. They also keep the drill bit cool and clean while drilling, transport drill cuttings, and
suspend drill cuttings during drilling pauses and when the drilling assembly is brought in and out of
the hole. To prevent formation damage and reduce corrosion, the drilling fluid utilized for a given
task is chosen.

2.2.1. Types of Drilling Fluids

Drill cuttings are carried out by drilling fluids, and they are suspended while drilling is stopped and
when the drilling assembly is taken in and out of the hole. Drill cuttings are carried out by drilling
fluids as well as kept cold and clean during drilling. In order to prevent corrosion and harm to the
formation, the drilling fluid is chosen for a specific task.(Anthony et al., 2020)

 Air: Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space or down the drill
string itself.

 Air/water: The same as above, with water added to increase viscosity, flush the hole, provide
more cooling, and/or to control dust.

 Air/polymer: A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a type of polymer, is

added to the water and air mixture to create specific conditions. A foaming agent is a good
example of a polymer.

 Water: Water by itself is sometimes used. In offshore drilling, seawater is typically used while
drilling the top section of the hole.

 Water-based mud (WBM): Most common water-based mud systems start with water, which is
then combined with clays and other chemicals to produce a homogenous mixture that
resembles a cross between chocolate milk and malt (depending on viscosity). The clay is
typically a blend of local clays that are suspended in the drilling fluid or specific kinds of clay
that are processed and supplied as WBM system additives. The most prevalent of them is
bentonite, also known as "gel" in the oilfield. Gel probably refers to the fact that a fluid can be
 very thin and freely flowing while it is being pumped (like chocolate milk), but that when
pumping is stopped, the static fluid forms a "gel" structure that opposes flow. A sufficient
pumping effort must be supplied to "break the gel" before flow may resume and the fluid
resumes flowing freely. To achieve various effects, such as viscosity control, shale stability,
enhancing drilling rate of penetration, and cooling and lubricating of equipment, several other
chemicals (for example, potassium formate) are added to a WBM system.

 Oil-based mud (OBM): Oil-based mud is mud that uses petroleum products, like diesel fuel,
as the basis fluid. Oil-based muds are employed for a variety of purposes, such as improved
shale inhibition, higher lubricity, and improved cleaning capabilities with reduced viscosity.
Additionally, oil-based muds can survive higher temperatures without degrading. The use of
oil-based muds must take into account a number of factors, including cost, environmental
concerns (such as where to dispose of cuttings), and the exploratory drawbacks of employing
oil-based mud, particularly in wildcat wells. Using an oil-based mud interferes with the
geochemical analysis of cuttings and cores and with the determination of API gravity because
the base fluid cannot be distinguished from oil that is returned from the formation.

 Synthetic-based fluid (SBM) (Otherwise known as Low Toxicity Oil Based Mud or LTOBM):
Synthetic-based fluid is a mud in which synthetic oil serves as the base fluid. Because it has
the same qualities as an oil-based mud but is less harmful than an oil-based fluid, this is most
frequently utilized on offshore rigs. This is crucial when the drilling team handles the fluid in
a small area, like an offshore drilling rig. Oil-based fluid and synthetic-based fluid both
provide environmental and analytical challenges.

Pumped from the mud pits to the drill bit's nozzles through the drill string on a drilling rig, the mud
cleans and cools the drill bit as it travels. The crushed or cut rock is subsequently carried by the mud
up the annulus between the drill string and the hole's sides, up through the surface casing, and
ultimately emerges back at the surface. The mud then travels back to the mud pits after being filtered
of cuttings using a shale shaker or a more recent shale conveyor system. The fluid is processed by
adding chemicals and other materials in the mud pits, which also serve as places for the drilled "fines"
to settle.
2.2.2. The Drilling Circulating System
The system for cycling drilling fluid (also known as mud) allows it to move from the surface all the
way downhole and back to its starting place. It is similar to a closed-loop electric circuit (i.e. mud
pit).

Drilling fluid, or mud, travels from mud pits to main rig pumps, or mud pump, and then to major
components like surface piping, standpipes, kelly hoses, drill pipes, drill collars, bit nozzles, various
annular geometries of the open hole and casing strings, flow lines, mud control equipment, mud
tanks, and once more the mud pit/mud pump (Figure 1). It goes without saying that the borehole's
rock cuttings must be cleaned out before drilling can continue. Drilling fluid is pumped up the
annulus, through the bit, and up the drill-string to accomplish this.
 Figure 2. 1: Different components showing drill circulating system

After that, the mud is separated from the cuts and recycled. The circulating system, or drilling fluid,

also makes it possible to clear the borehole of bit shavings, exert enough hydrostatic pressure to keep

formation fluids out, and preserve the stability of the hole by laying down a thin layer of mud cake on

its sidewalls.
Figure 2. 2: Different components showing rig circulating system with solids control equipment.

Figure 2. 3: A mud pump

Mud pumps, mud pits, mud mixing apparatus, and contaminant removal apparatus are the principal

parts of the circulation system (Figure 2). Figures 1 and 2 display a list of all the equipment that is

required for this system in detail. Typically, drilling fluid is made up of a combination of chemicals,

clay, weighing material (barite), and water. Many types of mud are now often utilized (i.e., oil base,

invert oil emulsion)

Figure 2. 4: A complete rig circulating system with rig itself.

Large pumps, such as sludge pumps, must be used to circulate the mud after it has been mixed and
conditioned in the mud pits (Figure 3). Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of a typical rig
circulating system and the direction of its flow. As seen in Figure 3, the mud is injected throughout
the entire process. When the mud rises to the surface once more, the solids must be taken out and the
mud must be condition before being circulated again. Shale shaker, desander, desilter, and vacuum
degasser are used to remove these solids as well as a few other impurities (Figure 5).

The mud pit is often made up of a number of big steel tanks that are connected to one another and
equipped with mud agitators to keep solids suspended (Figure 6). Suction pits are one type of pit used
for circulation, while others are utilized for mixing and storing new mud. The majority of modern rigs
feature facilities for storing and combining chemicals as well as bulk additives (like barite) (both
granular and liquid). The centrifugal pumps used for mixing are typically high volume, low discharge
pumps (Figure 2). The rig has at least two sludge pumps installed. They are typically coupled in
parallel to give large flow rates at shallow depths.

Reciprocal piston positive displacement pumps are used to deliver large volumes at high discharge
pressures. The standpipe, a steel pipe positioned vertically on one leg of the derrick, receives the
discharge line from the mud pumps. The top of the standpipe is linked to the swivel by a flexible
rubber hose (also known as a Kelly hose) via the gooseneck. The mud will contain suspended
particles, possibly some gas, and other impurities once it has been circulated throughout the system.
Before the mud is recycled, these must be taken out. A shale shaker, which is essentially a shaker
screen, is where the mud passes. This allows the underflow (residue) to flow into settling tanks while
removing the bigger particles. Utilizing desanders, desilters, and vacuum degassers, the finer particles
can be removed.
 Figure 2. 5: Shale shaker, desander, desilter, vacuum degasser– main solids control equipment

In order to separate the gas from the liquid mud, the mud can be passed through a degasser that
creates a vacuum if it includes gas from the formation. The mud is pumped to settling traps after
going through all of the mud processing machinery before being recycled back into the mud tanks.
Possum belly tank: this tank is also helpful for well monitoring. This is calibrated to measure the fluid
that is displaced while running into the hole. A pressure control issue can be found and the necessary
steps are taken if the level considerably deviates from the expected level.
 Figure 2. 6: Valve and liner arrangement of mud circulating pumps

2.3. Types of Drilling Mud

Drilling fluid is a fluid used to drill boreholes into the earth in geotechnical engineering. Drilling
fluids are used in drilling rigs to assist in drilling for the exploration of natural gas and oil. Drilling
mud is another name for liquid drilling fluid (Mukherjee, 2013). The drilling fluids are typically
divided into three different categories, including drilling fluids based on synthetic materials, oil, and
water. Due to their environmental friendliness and superior cost-effectiveness when compared to
synthetic or oil-based drilling fluids, water-based drilling fluids make up 80% of all drilling
operations. The elements that determine which drilling fluid to use (Anthony et al., 2020). These
factors are

(1) The location and the type of formation which is to be drilled

(2) The variation in the pressure and temperature of the wellbore

(3) The nature of the formation fluids i.e., strength, porosity and permeability and (4) the other
important factors considered while making the selection of the drilling fluids are production factors,
environmental factors and safety.

Over 80% of all wells are drilled using water-based drilling fluids. Fresh water, seawater, brine,
saturated brine, or formate brine are some of the possible fluids in this mixture. The chosen fluid type
is determined by the well's anticipated well conditions or by the precise interval being drilled.
Commercial bentonite or attapulgite may also be applied to help limit fluid loss and improve hole
cleaning efficiency. The water-based fluids can be divided into two main groups: dispersed and no
dispersed.

In order to aid with the drilling issues, oil-based drilling fluids were created and released in the 1960s.
They are made from low-toxicity linear olefins and paraffins, diesel, mineral oil, or oil. Barite is
utilized to increase system density, and in the majority of oil-based systems, carefully prepared
organophilic bentonite serves as the main viscosifier. The water phase of the emulsion also affects the
viscosity of the fluid. To help reduce HP/HT (High pressure/High temperature), materials with
organophilic lignitic, asphaltic, and polymeric properties are added.
The surfactants used to moisten the oil can also be utilized as a thinner. Lime is typically used in oil-
based systems to maintain a high pH, protect against the negative effects of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide gas, and improve emulsion stability. One of the main advantages of employing an
oil-based technology is shale inhibition. Shales are kept from hydrating, expanding, or sloughing into
the wellbore by the high-salinity water phase. The goal to lessen the environmental impact of offshore
drilling operations without jeopardizing the economic viability of oil-based systems led to the
development of synthetic-based drilling fluids. The drilling performance of synthetic-based drilling
fluids is remarkable, easily matching that of diesel and mineral oil-based fluids, according to field
data acquired since the early 1990s. Some of the synthetic-based systems are exempt from some
offshore laws that forbid the discharge of cuttings from holes made with oil-based drilling fluids.
Since viscosity problems become more significant when operators drill deeper into the ocean,
synthetic-based drilling fluids made with linear alpha olefins and isomerized olefins demonstrate the
reduced kinematic viscosities that are necessary.
2.4. Drilling Fluid Compositions, Additives and Their Functions
Drilling fluids are classified according to their base:

Water Base Muds: Solid particles are suspended in water or brine. Oil may be emulsified in the water,
in which case water is termed the continuous phase.

Oil Based Muds: Solid particles are suspended in oil. Water or brine is emulsified in the oil, i.e., oil
is the continuous phase.

Gas: Drill cuttings are removed by a high velocity stream of air or natural gas. Foaming agents are
added to remove minor inflows of water.(Darley, 1983)
In water base muds, the solids are made up of heavy minerals (typically barite, added to increase
density when necessary), organic colloids, and solids from the formation that become dispersed in the
mud during drilling. The water also contains dissolved salts, either from contamination with the
formation water or added for various purposes.

The very small particle size (and thus high surface area relative to its weight) is the main source of the
colloidal fraction's activity. Due to the particles' high specific surfaces, electrostatic charges on their
surfaces, which result in attractive or repulsive interparticle forces, largely determine how the
particles behave. Due to their shape—tiny crystalline platelets or packs of platelets—and molecular
structure, which produces highly negative charges on their basal surfaces and positive charges on
their edges, clay minerals are exceptionally active colloids. At low flow velocities, the interaction
between these opposing charges has a significant impact on the viscosity of clay muds and contributes
to the development of a reversible gel structure while the mud is at rest.

Various clay minerals, including montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite, the latter of which is by far the
most active, make up clays as they naturally exist. Other minerals in the colloidal and silt size ranges,
including quartz, feldspar, calcite, etc., may also be present. The ratio of the different clays and other
minerals present determines the viscosity of the resulting mud when clays are combined with water.
Commercial clays used in drilling muds are rated according to their yield, which is calculated as the
quantity of 42-gallon barrels (0.16 m3) of mud generated by a ton (2,000 Ib; 907 lb) of clay.
Wyoming bentonite, which has by far the highest production, comprises roughly 85%
montmorillonite, as shown in Figure 2.9. In the same way, drilling in rich formations, such as the
recent montmorillonitic sediments of the Gulf Coast, increases mud viscosity per foot of hole bored
far more than drilling in lean formations, such as the silty shales of the Mid-Continent. In the first
scenario, the surface-drilled materials must be chemically treated, diluted, or mechanically separated
in order to keep the viscosity within acceptable limits. In the latter scenario, the silts must be removed
mechanically, and commercial clays must be added to achieve the required rheological and filtration
qualities.(Amien, n.d.)
 Figure 2. 7: Classification of drilling fluids according to principal constituent

Water is the continuous phase in water-based drilling fluids, which are made up of a variety of
chemicals, liquids, and solids. Active and inactive solids both exist. The hydratable clays and other
active (hydrophilic) materials interact with the water phase to dissolve chemicals and thicken the
mud. Sand and shale are examples of inert (hydrophobic) substances that do not significantly react
with the water and chemicals. Basically, it is challenging to monitor and regulate the particles in the
drilling fluid due to the inert materials' variable specific gravities (i.e., inert solids produce
undesirable effects).

There are several different types of water-based drilling fluid additives in use today. The most typical
types of additives used in water-based muds are clays, polymers, weighing agents, fluidloss-control
additives, dispersants or thinners, inorganic compounds, lost-circulation materials, and surfactants. 
Weighting Agents. Barium sulfate is the most significant weighing component in drilling fluids
(BaSO4). Barium sulfate is present in the thick mineral known as barite. For mud densities between 9
and 19 lbm/gal to be produced according to API regulations, barite's specific gravity must be at least
4.20 g/cm3. However, a number of substances, such as siderite (3.08 g/cm3), calcium carbonate (2.7-
2.8 g/cm3), hematite (5.05 g/cm3), ilmetite (4.6 g/cm3), and galena (7.5 g/cm3), have been utilized as
weighing agents for drilling fluids. (Darley, 1983)

Fluid-Loss-Control Additives. As fluid-loss control additives, clays, dispersants, and polymers like
starch are frequently utilized. In the majority of water-based drilling fluids, sodium montmorillonite
(bentonite) serves as the main fluid-loss-control ingredient. A compressible filter cake is made up of
the colloidal-sized sodium bentonite particles, which have a huge surface area and are very thin and
sheet- or plate-like in shape. Bentonite's ability to hydrate is significantly reduced by inhibitory mud
systems. So, before being added to these systems, bentonite needs to be rehydrated in fresh water.
The fluid-loss-control properties of sodium montmorillonite's bigger and thicker particles differ..
(Darley, 1983)

Thinners or Dispersants. Modern dispersants or thinners are used to improve fluid-loss control and
thin out filter cakes, despite the fact that their initial application was to minimize flow resistance and
gel development (related to viscosity reduction). Deflocculants are frequently referred to mistakenly
as dispersants. Chemical substances known as dispersants lessen the likelihood that the mud will
congeal into a mass of particles or "floc cells" (i.e., the thickening of the drilling mud resulting from
edge-to-edge and edge-to-face association of clay platelets). Additionally, certain dispersants help
minimize fluid loss by sealing or bridging microscopic holes in the filter cake. This is why some
dispersants, such lignosulfonate (a highly anionic polymer), work better than others at reducing fluid
loss.(IMCO 1981).(Falode et al., 2008)

Quebracho, a kind of tannin used as a mud thinner, is extracted from specific hardwood trees.
Additionally, it can be used to prevent cement contamination in mud. Quebracho must have a high pH
in order to dissolve easily in cold water. As a result, quebracho and caustic soda should be combined
in an equal weight ratio of 1 part caustic soda to 5 parts quebracho. Quebracho's concentration ranges
from 0.5 to 2 lbm/bbl. When mixing these fluids (or any other fluid and solid), safety precautions
must be taken into account.
Lost-Circulation Materials. The term "lost circulation" refers to the loss of all drilling fluid to a
subterranean deposit. Drilling fluid pressures that are too high can cause circulation in a drilling well
to be lost into extremely permeable sandstones, naturally occurring or artificially created formation
fractures, and cavernous zones. Drilling mud flowing into the formation suggests that mud that has
been pushed down a well is not coming back up.

An immense diversity of lost-circulation materials has been used. Commonly used materials include:

 Fibrous materials such as wood fiber, cotton fiber, mineral fiber, shredded automobile tires,
ground-up currency, and paper pulp

 Granular material such as nutshell (fi ne, medium, and coarse), calcium carbonate (fi ne,
medium, and coarse), expanded perlite, marble, Formica, and cottonseed hulls

 Flakelike materials such as mica flakes, shredded cellophane, and pieces of plastic laminate

Slurries are a different category of lost-circulation materials mentioned by Darley and Gray (1988).
After installation, hydraulic cement, diesel oil-bentonite mud mixtures, and high-filter-loss drilling
muds all harden (become stronger).

Surfactants or Surface-Active Agents. A soluble organic chemical known as a surface-active agent

targets the surface boundary between two different substances and reduces the surface tension there.
Surfactants have a diverse molecular structure made up of groups with opposing solubility
inclinations, such as hydrophobic and hydrophilic. They are frequently employed as drilling fluid
additives in the oil industry to convert the clay's colloidal condition from one of total dispersion to
one of controlled flocculation. They can separate into a large organic cation and a simple inorganic
anion if they are cationic, a big organic anion and a simple inorganic cation if they are anionic, or
they can separate into a nonionic form (long chains of polymer that do not dissociate)(Ahmed &
Kalkan, 2019).

As emulsifiers, dispersants, wetting agents, foamers, and defoamers as well as to lessen the moisture
of the clay surface, surfactants are utilized in drilling fluids. The molecule's structural groups
determine the type of surfactant behavior.

Various Other Additives. There are numerous other drilling fluid additives. Some are utilized for pH
regulation, which entails chemical reaction inhibition or enhancement, as well as drill string corrosion
reduction. Bactericides are used to eradicate germs in starch-rich fluids, particularly salt muds. To
bind up calcium from the cement cuttings, several contamination reducers such sodium acid
polyphosphate (SAPP) are utilized when drilling cement.

Corrosion inhibitors exist, particularly H2S scavengers. Defoamers and foaming agents are available
to reduce foaming and increase foaming, respectively. When a drill string becomes stuck, there are
pipe-freeing chemicals and lubricants for reducing torque and drag.

2.5. Functions of Drilling Mud

When drilling with a rotary rig, the rig operator normally circulates some type of fluid. Drilling fluid
is necessary because it—

1. cleans the bottom of the hole,

2. transports bit cuttings to the surface,

3. cools and lubricates the bit and drill stem,

4. supports the walls of the wellbore,

5. prevents the entry of formation fluids into the well,

6. transmits hydraulic power to downhole equipment,

7. reveals the presence of oil, gas, or water that may enter the circulating fluid from a formation being
drilled, and

8. reveals information about the formation by means of the cuttings the fluid brings up to the surface.

Many kinds of drilling fluids are available, and all perform these functions in their own way. Air and
gas have particular advantages and disadvantages compared to drilling muds.

2.6. Drilling Fluid Properties

A few minimal fluid characteristics must be maintained due to the numerous activities that the drilling
fluid performs. The mud engineer receives a "status report" on the fluid's behavior in relation to the
formation and the subsurface environment through the measurement of these parameters. Density,
viscosity, fluid loss management, and chemical composition are the most crucial characteristics.
(Odeh et al., 2022)
2.6.1. Density
The proper drilling fluid density depends on the pressures within the subsurface formation. Drilling
fluid with a specific gravity of less than 2.4 may be necessary for overpressure shales and high-
pressure formations, although strong, competent formations can be successfully completed with a
density of less than 1.0. The density can be changed by adding solids, sometimes known as weight
material, or soluble salts (for example, barite is added to the mud to increase the density). There are
several ways to express density values:

 ppg = pounds per gallon (United States)

 S.G. = specific gravity (dimensionless) (international)

 psi/ft = pounds per square inch per foot (uncommon)

 pcf = pounds per cubic foot (California)

2.6.2. Viscosity
The hole's depth and the annular viscosities affect the mud's flow characteristics. Water might be
plenty in the top of the hole, but more viscous fluids might be needed at deeper levels. Conditions
requiring strict attention to the flow parameters include deep wells, directional wells, high penetration
rates, high mud weights, and strong temperature gradients. With the use of polymers or clay, the
viscosity can be increased, while chemical thinners or water can be used to decrease it.(Wilfred &
Akinade, 2016)

2.6.3. Fluid loss control

The relative signal provided by the fluid loss reveals how the mud is preventing base fluid leakage
into the formation. This becomes crucial when drilling porous strata, especially those that hold oil or
gas. Drilling fluid may harm porous formations by penetrating the rock and doing so. (However, a
little fluid loss does not automatically mean that the formation will sustain little harm.) Bentonite is
one sort of fluid loss additive that can be added in the mud to assist alleviate this issue.(Annis &
Smith, 1996)

2.6.4. Chemical composition

Compounds that consist of a fluid and a solid phase called drilling fluids. Chemical analysis of the
amounts of calcium, chlorides, hydroxols, bicarbonate and carbonate ions, sodium, potassium, and
nitrates are used to determine the nature of the fluid phase. To ascertain solids concentration,
particular densities, and particle sizes, the solid phase's nature is investigated. The removal of solids
via shale shakers, desanders, desilters, and/or dilution is the main method of solids control.(Wilfred &
Akinade, 2016)

2.6.5. Filtration or fluid loss

The amount of liquid that might leak through deposited mud solids into a permeable formation is
measured relative to filtration or fluid loss. The sediments that are left behind are known as filter cake
or mud cake, and the liquid is known as filtrate. The amount of filtrate recovered after 30 minutes is
measured using two common filtration tests employing filter paper. These tests are the high-
temperature high-pressure (HTHP) test and the low-temperature/low-pressure fluid loss test, often
known as the American Petroleum Institute (API) test. The milliliters (ml) that flow through a 7.1-sq-
in. area are used to represent the results. The measured filtrate value is twice for reporting since the
HTHP filtration test unit is a half-area (3.5 sq in.) press. Filter cake thickness is calculated and
expressed in fractions of an inch (or millimeters where SI units are used). A 3 signifies that the filter
cake is 3/32 in thick. The low-temperature/low-pressure test, also known as the API fluid loss test, is
a fundamental filtering test that is carried out at room temperature and 100 psi. The HTHP filtration
test, which is carried out at a pressure differential of 500 psi at a temperature that is closer to the
bottomhole temperature, is the most sophisticated test. Although there isn't a specific temperature for
the HTHP test, standards are frequently set between 275°F and 325°F. Naturally, this depends on the
location and the operator. If at all possible, the HTHP test should be conducted at the actual
bottomhole temperatures and differential pressures present in the wellbore. Both filter cake thickness
and filtering rate are measured and given as attributes. The likelihood of having a differentially
jammed pipe is considerably increased by high fluid loss and thick filter cakes. An ideal filter cake is
thin, robust, compressible, and slippery with extremely low permeability (lubricious). Many low fluid
loss drilling fluids do not have a high-quality filter cake, hence it is impossible to predict these
desirable characteristics just based on fluid loss numbers. By reducing the amount of drill solids
(colloidal-sized solids) in the drilling fluid and maintaining the right concentration of filtering control
additives, a suitable filter cake can be produced. For most WBMs, the best quality filter cake is
achieved by using an adequate quantity of high-quality bentonite.(Jankowska et al., 2015)

If at all possible, the HTHP test should be conducted at the actual bottomhole temperatures and
differential pressures present in the wellbore. Both filter cake thickness and filtering rate are
measured and given as attributes. The likelihood of having a differentially jammed pipe is
considerably increased by high fluid loss and thick filter cakes. An ideal filter cake is thin, robust,
compressible, and slippery with extremely low permeability (lubricious). Many low fluid loss drilling
fluids do not have a high-quality filter cake; hence it is impossible to predict these desirable
characteristics just based on fluid loss numbers. By reducing the amount of drill solids (colloidal-
sized solids) in the drilling fluid and maintaining the right concentration of filtering control additives,
a suitable filter cake can be produced. A detailed breakdown of the drilling fluid's composition,
known as a solids analysis, can be made using this information and additional data from the chemical
analysis. Included in this are the amounts of oil, water or brine, low-gravity solids (mostly drill
solids), and high-gravity solids (normally barite). The number of solids in the mud impacts its overall
stability, flow characteristics, gel strengths, and drilling rate. Results from this analysis are frequently
used to determine how frequently dilution and chemical treatments should be applied. For overall
enhanced mud performance, optimum solids content and solids control are crucial. Chemical
substance Chemical analyses of the entire mud and filtrate are performed to check specifications and
spot contaminants. These tests may include: pH, various alkalinity measurements (PM, PF, and MF
for WBM and POM for NAF), lime content, chloride (or salt), calcium (or total hardness),
carbonate/bicarbonate, sulfate, methylene blue test (MBT), H2S, electrical stability, water activity,
and others, depending on the type of drilling fluid being used. The scope of this publication does not
include a description of these chemical tests, although the section on system maintenance and
contamination treatments does highlight the importance of certain of these tests.(Annis & Smith,
1996)

2.7. Environmental Impact of Drilling mud

When drilling oil and gas exploration and production wells, drillers utilize specialized drilling fluids
known as muds to help maintain well control and remove drill cuttings from the drill hole (Burke and
Veil, 1995). The drilling industry has recently developed several types of synthetic-based fluids or
synthetic-based fluids that combine the desirable operating qualities of oil-based drilling fluids with
the lower toxicity and environmental impact qualities of water-based fluids in response to the current
global environmental challenges as well as strict international and local regulations on drilling waste
discharge requirements.(Chuma Conlette, 2011). Oil-based fluid and synthetic-based fluid may be
needed for the water-sensitive formation. A properly formulated oil-based lubricant can stop water
from leaking into the shale formation. However, the accepted American Petroleum Institute (API)
criteria must be adhered to when creating oil-based drilling fluids. The API standard for drilling fluid
rheology requirements is shown in the table below. In order to create, maintain, and disseminate
consensus standards for the oil and gas industry, subject matter experts from various sectors are
brought together by API, a standards-setting organization founded in 1919.

Numerical Value
Parameter Requirement
Basic Oil Characteristics Requirements
Flash Point 150 °F (66 °C)
Fire Point 200 °F (93 °C)
Aniline Point 140 °F (60 °C)
Fluid Properties
Density 7.5 to over 22.0 (lb/gal)
Plastic Viscosity < 65 (cP) or ALAP
Yield Point 15-45 (lb/100 ft2))
PV/YP Ratio 0.8-1.5
Gel Strength 10 seconds 3-20 (lb/100 ft2)
Gel Strength 10 minutes 8-30 (lb/100 ft2)
Calcium Chloride 20-25 % by weight
Excess Lime 1-3 ppg
Electrical Stability > 400 (volts)
HPHT Filtrate before rolling 10-25 Milliliters (ml)
API Fluid loss 15.0 ml (maximum)
Oil/Water Ratio 65/35 to 95/5
EPA Mysid Shrimp Test 30 000 ppm LC50 (minimum)
pH 8.5-10

Oil-based fluids are effective in locations where shale swelling is a problem, but when the pollution is
released and then spread to the sea, it tends to have a negative influence on the ecosystem. Fish and
aquatic vegetation both suffer greatly as a result of this. long-term harm to the ecology Furthermore,
when consumed by humans, fish are often toxic and hazardous. Additionally, these contaminants
from onshore drilling may have a substantial negative influence on soil quality, which has a serious
negative impact on the chemical characteristics of the soil and consequently has a big negative impact
on human habitat and animals. When oil-based fluid is discharged underwater, its cuts do not spread
as much as those from water-based fluid. Cuttings will accumulate and cover portions of the seabed.
The organisms that live on the bottom near to the rig may be impacted by this circumstance.(Olatunde
et al., 2021)
A more recent class of drilling muds that is particularly helpful for deep water and deviated hole
drilling are the synthetic-based drilling fluids. They belong to a brand-new category of materials that
offer safe and economical technology for drilling oil and gas wells. Their improved drilling
performance reduces drilling time and offers advantages over diesel oil fluids in terms of safety,
human health, and, in some situations, environmental performance. They were created as an improved
environmentally friendly substitute for drilling fluids based on oil (Neff et al., 2000; American
Chemistry Council (ACC), 2006).(Neff, 2016).

2.8. The Nigerian bentonite clay

According to a 2012 analysis by the Nigerian Extractive Industries and Transparency Initiative
(NEITI) on the state of solid minerals in the nation, there are between 40 and 50 different types of
solid minerals dispersed in variable amounts throughout the nation. These mineral resources are
expected to have a commercial and economic value in the millions of trillions of dollars. About 65 to
70 percent of these mineral resources are located in northern Nigeria.

The remainder are found in significant amounts in the South of the nation. Bentonite clay, ilmenite,
columbite, iron ore, barytes, sodium chloride, ephalerite, silica sand, talc, gemstone (tourmaline,
aquamarine, and sapphire), halcopyrite, topaz, emerald, heliodor, amethyst, quartz, coking coal,
marble, and mica are some examples of these useful natural resources. The nation of Nigeria is
covered in layers of bentonite clay. There may be more deposits in some areas of the nation than
others. The predominant color of bentonite clay is light, and it expands when combined with water.
The mineral montmorillonite, a member of the smectites group and the main component of bentonite,
makes up the bulk of the material. m (Mg[Si4O10] [OH]2) p([Al, Fe]2 [Si4O10]) m:p = 0.8-0.9 is the
usual equation for the montmorillonite mineral found in bentonite clays. Numerous auxiliary
minerals, including feldspar, quartz, gypsum, etc., are produced as a result of the nature of
montmorillonite formation. Sodium montmorillonite and calcium montmorillonite are the two main
varieties of montmorillonite clays. These exchangeable cations can also be found in lithium,
magnesium, and potassium montmorillonite clays, though they are less frequent. Clays made of
sodium montmorillonite are primarily distinguished by their great capacity for swelling and improved
thermal stability. Although calcium montmorillonite clays make up the majority of bentonites found
worldwide, they are primarily distinguished from sodium montmorillonite clays by having a lower
swelling capacity. Although weathered volcanic ash is frequently used to explain the origin and
formation of bentonites, the origin of the numerous clay deposits in Nigeria remains a mystery
because there hasn't been any recorded volcanic activity in the past and the nation isn't generally
known for such geologic activity. However, this has forced the name "bentonite" to be redefined to
refer to any clay mineral that is mostly composed of montmorillonite, regardless of its location or
source.

2.8.1. Estimates of clay deposits

Deposits of local bentonite clays have been modestly projected to be above 700 million metric tons in
Nigeria, with the majority of it lying in Afuze, Edo State, Mid-Western Nigeria, which holds about
70-80 million metric tons of bentonite (estimates from the Nigerian Mining Corporation and the Raw
Materials Research Development Council (RMRDC)) (Aigbedion and Iyayi, 2007a; Raw Materials
Research and Development Council, 2007; James e (Nweke et al., 2015; Nweke, 2015). In addition,
Taraba and Bauchi in Nigeria have been found to contain roughly 7.5 million metric tons of barite
reserves. The North-East region, which includes Borno, Adamawa, and Gombe States, is another
region having sizable quantities of bentonite clays. (Falode et al., 2008; Olatunde et al., 2021). A
prominent deposit containing significant amounts of bentonite clays is the Abakaliki Formation in
South-East Nigeria (O. E. Agwu et al., 2015). Bentonite clay deposits have also been recorded in the
states of Lagos, Anambra, and Abia. It can be argued that these bentonite clay deposits span
practically all of the federated states. If correctly utilized, these clay resources might become a
significant foreign money generator. While the North East part of Nigeria possesses a total of 700
million tons in its pure, untreated form of clay, the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is thought to have a
likely reserve of roughly 4 billion tons. (O. E. Agwu et al., 2015). The Raw Materials Research
Development Council (RMRDC), a research parastatal of the Federal Government of Nigeria, has
also taken the lead in estimating the Nigerian bentonite resource. The RMRDC presented the location
and estimated costs of Nigeria's proven bentonite clay reserves in 2010. Other places with bentonite
deposits in various parts of Nigeria have been found, but they require further research for reserve
estimation, quantification, and characterization. These locations are in addition to the proved reserve
of bentonite deposit identified.

2.8.2. Historical antecedents of clay deposits

Early studies revealed that the first bentonite clay mining in Nigeria took place in 1961 in the Bende
local government area of Abia State in the country's former east. Over the years of 1961 to 1963, the
production of these clays began at a rate of 3000 tons per day and reached a maximum of 5106 tons
per day. After this time, very few academic studies on Nigerian bentonic clays were conducted, which
resulted in a drop in the utilization of Nigerian bentonic clays for drilling fluid application (Agwu et
al., 2015). Due to inadequate research on Nigerian bentonite clays and the country's growing need for
bentonite in the oil and gas sector, international bentonite clays had to be imported to fill the gap. The
Nigerian oil and gas industry began drilling operations in the early to mid-1950s with the use of
regional additives in the drilling fluid formulation. The circumstances of the Nigerian civil war
further hampered any research efforts toward the development of the Nigerian bentonite reserve, even
if the use of bentonite clays and additives derived locally decreased near the end of the 1960s.
According to Omole et al., there was a revival of scientific interest in Nigerian bentonite clays in the
late 1980s, which led to the application of sodium beneficiation as a method for enhancing the clays'
qualities (1989).

2.9. Characterization of Nigerian bentonite clays

Previous research into the characterisation of bentonite deposits in Nigeria was focused on a regional
analysis of the areas where they were found. Furthermore, these research showed that the bentonite
clays from Nigeria are primarily low-grade calcium montmorillonite, necessitating beneficiation
using sodium salt as one of the techniques to raise its quality. Oyawoye and Hirst's work is
responsible for the groundbreaking characterisation research of bentonite clay deposits in Nigeria
(1964). Utilizing X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and thermal analysis, they conducted a mineralogical
investigation on clay samples collected from Ropp in the Plateau Province of the former Northern
Nigeria. In their research, only one location was sampled. The clay sample was calcium
montmorillonite, with silicon oxide predominating among the oxides (47.38 percent). ferric oxide and
aluminum oxide (21.27 percent each) (10.66 percent). The clay samples also contained 1% other
oxides.

There is a requirement for beneficiation because samples of bentonite clay taken from deposits in
Nigeria were found to have contaminants in their natural state. (Olatunde et al., 2021). Simply put,
beneficiation improves the quality of the bentonite clay by removing unwanted impurities or related
minerals.

(Okon et al., 2020). Utilizing sodium salts like sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3), which enable the conversion of clays that are primarily calcium
montmorillonite to sodium montmorillonite via an ion exchange process, can be used for
beneficiation. Since not all deposits of bentonite clay have been examined, it is impossible to say with
certainty if regional distribution of bentonite clays in Nigeria plays a significant impact in the
mineralogy, elemental makeup, and performance of these clays. These clay deposits' mineralogy may
be related to the geology of the basin in which they were formed. In all known sedimentary basins in
Nigeria, marine shale units are found, and these units are greatly enriched in montmorillonite. The
Agwu shale unit in Eastern Nigeria, the Fika shale unit in North-East Nigeria, the Imo shale unit
(which extends over the southern portion of Nigeria), and the shale units of the Dukamaje and
Kalambaina formations in North-West Nigeria are some examples of these marine shale units. These
formations are reported to include over 80% montmorillonite that has been enhanced with calcium
and little to no sodium. Despite this, it is still not possible to draw any firm conclusions about how the
geology of the environment affects things because more research needs to be done since not all
locations with significant bentonite clay deposits have been examined. (Chuma Conlette, 2011)
carried completed a study on the beneficiation and characterization of a sample of bentonite clay from
Yola, Adamawa State, North-East Nigeria. This Yola bentonite's compositional analysis found that
the sample of clay is low-grade calcium montmorillonite, which is characteristic of other samples
from different places that have been studied.(Sinha & Murugavelh, 2016). Additionally, the
beneficiation process utilized to handle the raw bentonite clay does have a significant part in
improving the quality of the clays that are produced. In treating raw bentonite clay samples from Yola
in Adamawa State, North-East Nigeria, James et al. (2008) compared wet and dry beneficiation
methods. Through material characterization, they found that wet beneficiated Yola clay samples
displayed improved values in pH, swelling power, cation exchange capacity, apparent viscosity, and
yield when compared to the dry beneficiated Yola clay samples. The bulk density of the dryly
beneficiated Yola clay samples, however, was higher than that of the wetly beneficiated Yola clays.
This might be explained by the dry method's failure to effectively remove any contaminants that were
present in the sample. If the bentonite clay is not given enough time to adequately hydrate and
homogenize with the chemicals employed for the beneficiation research, several wet beneficiation
procedures may also be futile.

(Wilfred & Akinade, 2016) This may be related to the dry method's failure to effectively re-move
contaminants found in the sample. If the bentonite clay is not given enough time to fully hydrate and
blend with the chemicals employed for the beneficiation research, several wet beneficiation
procedures may also be futile. (O. Agwu et al., 2016) examined bentonite clays in Borno State, North-
East Nigeria, and found that, similar to other investigations on bentonite clays in that region, they
were high in montmorillonite, which is mainly composed of calcium and needs beneficiation to
increase the clay's quality. (Okon et al., 2020) carried out mineralogical characterization of clay
samples obtained from the Fika formation in North-East Nigeria. The clay samples primarily
contained calcium-based montmorillonite, which needed to be beneficiated with sodium carbonate in
order to be converted to sodium-based montmorillonite by ion exchange. The beneficiation of these
bentonite clays is a required step if they are to be used for application in the oil and gas industry,
according to the mineralogical and elemental analysis of Nigerian bentonite clay deposits conducted
by researchers in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. This is significant because the majority of clay
deposits examined to far do not have rheological qualities that satisfy API standards.

2.9.1. Properties of locally formulated drilling mud using Nigerian bentonite

Bentonite clay deposits in Nigeria were mineral characterized, and the results showed that the clays
are primarily calcium-based montmorillonite, which is different from the industry standard, which is a
sodium-based montmorillonite clay. In order to change the calcium-based montmorillonite clays into
sodium-based montmorillonite with qualities similar to the API standard Wyoming bentonite clays,
researchers have primarily used beneficiation or activation of these clays with a sodium salt. (Falode
et al., 2008; Okon et al., 2020). The mechanism through which this occurs involves an ion exchange
process in which calcium ions are substituted for sodium ions. Research has been done on the
following characteristics of locally made drilling mud: Plastic Viscosity (PV), Apparent Viscosity
(AV), Yield Point (YP), Mud Density (MD), Fluid Loss (FL), pH, and Gel Strength (GS). (Falode et
al., 2008) evaluated local bentonite clays obtained from the Pindiga formation in North-East Nigeria
for rheological and filtration performance using a Rheometer and an API filter press. The authors took
into account filtration qualities, gel strength, free swell volume, and rheological parameters. It was
shown that the concentration of clay has a direct impact on these qualities, improving each one
clearly. The ideal clay ratio was 80 g of bentonite clay to 350 ml of deionized water. Following the
treatment of the Pindiga clays with 12.5 percent (potash and starch) and 40 g/350 ml sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3), the swell volume capacity, plastic viscosity, and yield point all increased by 64
percent, 750 percent, and 3000 percent, respectively. The amount of fluid loss was reduced by 35 and
32 percent, respectively, due to the starch and potash. The thickness of the mud cake was also
reduced by 55 and 33 percent, respectively. The authors concluded that optimum concentrations of
the clay and additives tend to improve the performance of the local bentonite clays for drilling
purpose.
2.10. Suitability of Nigerian clay for drilling mud formulation
When crude oil was first discovered in the 1950s, and more recently by Shell Petroleum Development
Company, Nigeria in 2001, when more than 600 wells were drilled using it, Nigerian bentonite was
the sole significant material used for drilling oil wells. (O. E. Agwu et al., 2015). Nigerian researchers
have been actively looking at the use of Nigerian clay in drilling muds and prospective markets for it
in recent years. The American Petroleum Institute (API) standard for clay beneficiation and
characterization has been the main focus of many of these investigations. Previous studies on the
production of drilling fluids using only bentonite from Nigeria in its raw state have demonstrated that
these drilling fluids have a substantial fluid loss. While the qualities of drilling mud have not
significantly improved with the use of locally derived components like guar gum in effectively
decreasing fluid loss, (Chuma Conlette, 2011)

Despite Nigeria having a sizable bentonite clay supply, there hasn't been any information on its
significant exploitation for making drilling mud. While certain clays might not have the qualities
needed for drilling mud application in their unprocessed natural state, putting them through particular
processes may enhance their quality. The raw and concentrated forms of the local bentonite make it
unsuitable for use in drilling mud. The rheological and filtration qualities of these local clay samples
improved when they underwent beneficiation with starch, sodium carbonate, and potash, in
accordance with API and OCMA recommendations. Additionally, it was shown that potash-
beneficiated mud had the most enhanced rheological features compared to starch-beneficiated mud in
terms of filtration characteristics. The qualities of locally manufactured drilling mud would be
improved by the addition of potash and starch, increasing its applicability. Additionally, it was found
that beneficiation using chemical additives, such as the polymer "drispac," enhanced the rheological
qualities of the bentonite clay obtained locally. (Okon et al., 2020). The measured parameters also
complied with API requirements. This serves as more evidence that, when treated with the
appropriate chemical additions, bentonite clays from Nigeria are mostly viable for drilling mud
applications.

It can be said from the reviewed works of (Falode et al., 2008); James et al. (2008) and (O. E. Agwu
et al., 2015) The majority of Nigeria's montmorillonite clays are rich in calcium, but they must be
efficiently beneficiated through ion exchange to become sodium-rich montmorillonite clay because
none of the clay samples in their raw form exhibited any discernible swelling properties that might
support their use in drilling mud preparation. The amazing swelling and rheological characteristics of
these beneficiated bentonite clays are comparable to those of regular commercial foreign bentonite.
Even though this might be considered a milestone in terms of improving the application of local
bentonite clays, more work still has to be done, as is highlighted in the next section. The bentonite
reserve in Nigeria has the potential to generate cash for the nation. More research is therefore required
to assess and improve its applicability both within and outside the borders of Nigeria. There are still
concerns about whether the local bentonite clay can be utilised effectively in such areas with the
transition from conventional to unconventional oil resources. It must not only be possible to improve
the native bentonite clays' characteristics in the Nigerian setting. Considering the wider context of
R.O. (Afolabi et al., 2017) enhancing the characteristics of the locally sourced bentonite clays would
allow for a marketable product for foreign use thereby generating foreign exchange earnings.
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Reagent and Raw Materials Used
The reagents and raw materials used for this study are shown below

Table 3. 1: Reagents and their uses

Reagents Uses

Local Bentonite clay The main raw material for drilling mud
formation

Water For mixing specified amount of crushed

clay material

Sodium Carbonate To reduce the calcium content via

cation exchange process

Potassium Chloride Reduction of fluid loss in the drilling mud

Starch For increasing the viscosity and

reducing fluid loss

Sodium Hydroxide To regulate the pH and decrease corrosion

3.1.2 Apparatus Used

Table 2 shows the various equipment used in this study

Table 3. 2: Apparatus and their uses

Apparatus Function/Uses
Graduated measuring cylinder Measurement of specific volumes of
solution
For transfer and supply of measured volumes of
Beaker
liquid

pH meter For determining pH of solution

For separating unwanted particles present in the

Sieve crushed clay material

Weighing balance For determining mass in grams

Stop watch For measuring precise time

For mixing drilling fluids in preparation for

Mechanical overhead stirrer laboratory test

For crushing the bentonite clay into small particles

Mortar

For labelling samples for proper

Masking tape
identification

Magnetic stirrer For obtaining homogeneous liquid mixtures

For measuring solid, moving objects and scraping

Spatula
materials out of beaker

For measuring the rotation speed of the

Tachometer
overhead stirrer

For determining the viscosity of the various mud

Viscometer samples
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Preparation of bentonite clay
The bentonite clay material used was dried under moderate conditions and was crushed by pounding
in a mortar. Sieve analysis was carried out on the crushed clay with the use of a sieve shaker using
different mesh sizes to obtain fine particles. Proportions of 20g, 25g, 30g, 35g and 40g of fine
bentonite clay were weighed and placed in different beakers labelled appropriately.

3.2.2 Preparation of sodium carbonate solution

Sodium carbonate solution is created by combining distilled water with sodium carbonate powder
(soda ash). For an ion exchange procedure with Ca-bentonite, where the calcium can be precipitated
as calcium bentonite, this solution functioned as a source of carbonate and sodium ions. (Magzoub et
al. 2017).

3.2.3 Preparation of the drilling mud

Quantitative analysis was then carried out on a measured portion (250ml) of the prepared local mud
to determine its rheological properties. This was done for the purpose of comparing the values of the
measured parameters before beneficiation to those after beneficiation. The parameters measured
include; mud density, specific gravity, pH, viscosity, plastic viscosity, apparent viscosity, yield point,
gel strength and fluid loss.

The experimental procedure involved the addition of a bentonite clay sample to a sodium carbonate
aqueous solution to form a bentonite suspension, which was stirred continuously for 60minutes 70oC
and speed of 150 rpm (which was determined using a tachometer) and at a temperature of to form
sodium bentonite and calcium carbonate. The calcium-based bentonite was therefore converted to
sodium-based bentonite by combining chemical (addition of sodium carbonate), mechanical
(agitation), and thermal (heating) treatment procedures. The bentonite clay sample was treated with
sodium carbonate making use of a sodium carbonate bentonite weight ratio of 1:6 by varying the
sodium carbonate content and bentonite concentration.

In this experiment, six different samples were made with varying sodium carbonate/bentonite weight
ratio while maintaining a standard measurement of 350ml of distilled water. The sodium
carbonate/bentonite weight ratios are as follows:

1. 20g of local bentonite (no sodium carbonate).

 2. 3.3g of sodium carbonate to 20g of local bentonite

3. 4.2g of sodium carbonate to 25g of local bentonite.

4. 5.0g of sodium carbonate to 30g of local bentonite.

5. 5.8g of sodium carbonate to 35g of local bentonite.

6. 6.7g of sodium carbonate to 40g of local bentonite.

Upon the formation of bentonite suspension, the bentonite suspension was heated and stirred
continuously with the aid of a magnetic stirrer and a magnetic stirrer hot plate. The different samples
(sample 2 - 6) were subsequently treated with 10g of cassava starch flour and other chemical
additives such as sodium hydroxide and potassium chloride for another 10mins to form a bentonite-
starch suspension and to achieve a homogenous dispersion where the polymer chains are well
confined by the clay particles.

3.2.4 Optimization by means of characterization

The various mud samples where then characterized by determining the rheological properties of the
mud which consist of;

 Plastic viscosity,

 Apparent viscosity,

 Yield point,

 Mud density,

 Specific gravity

 Alkalinity

 Gel strength and

 Fluid loss.

The main equipment used for this experiment was a Viscometer. It is a coaxial viscometer with a set
speed of 600rpm, 300rpm, 200rpm, 100rpm, and 3rpm that can be switch-selectable with the rpm
handle. From this experiment, the rheological properties calculated included;
Plastic Viscosity (cp), PV = 600rpm reading − 300rm reading
Yield Point (lbs∕100ft2), YP = 300rpm reading – PV
Apparent Viscosity (cp), AV =600 𝑟𝑝𝑚/2
The fluid loss was determined by using a filter paper attached to a measuring cylinder. Each sample
were poured gradually into the set up and the volume of liquid lost from the mud is measured in the
measuring cylinder.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Properties of Local Clay
Fig. 4.1 below is a diffractogram of the local clay sample. The d – spacing value of the clay was sharp
at 26.9Å. The d-spacing value of 26.9Å by spectrum showed the presence of Calcite, kaolinite, and
Annite as the major constituent then, followed by quartz. These major mineral phases, as seen above,
agree with the X fluorescence results. The intense and sharp kaolinite peak observed in the spectra
indicated the crystalline nature of clay.
Fig 4.2 – 4.5 shows the stick pattern and properties of these major constituents.
Figure 4. 1: X-ray diffraction spectrum of clay
Figure 4. 2: Properties and Stick pattern of Calcite

Figure 4. 3: properties and Stick pattern of Kaolinite

Figure 4. 4: Properties and Stick pattern of Annite

Figure 4. 5: Properties and Stick pattern of Quartz low
From Fig. 4.6, the bands correspond to 3500 to 4000 cm-1 which indicated the presence of hydroxyl
groups (OH). The band is the stretching action of OH-to-OH groups as well. The multiple bonds at
1000 cm-1 to 500 cm-1 corresponded to the C-H stretching vibrations of some organic materials. The
high plastic local clay is due to the low organic materials in the clay.

Figure 4. 6: FTIR analysis of local clay

Peak Number Wavenumber (cm-1) Intensity

1 685.83016 88.85900

2 790.19562 91.05871

3 998.92654 74.00161

4 1438.75241 96.51921

5 1640.02865 97.73324

6 3540.97095 97.82456

7 3622.97238 97.38831
The clay sample in Fig 4.7 and 4.8 contains high alumina and silica with low flux oxides (CaO,
Fe2O3, K2O), making the clay very suitable for refractory applications such as porcelain
production (whitewares) and drilling operations. The silica content of clay above 36.49%
indicates free silica (Quartz) in the system, which will enhance the ceramic properties. The
Alumina content of 12.02% is slightly below the standard for drilling clay. The Fe2O3 content
was 4.21% which is moderately ok for drilling clay.

Figure 4. 7: EDXRF Analyzer of clay

Figure 4. 8: Oxide composition of the clay
4.2. Application of the local clay in drilling mud
The table below shows the API values of the physiochemical properties of imported drilling
mud. These values were used as standard in comparing the values obtained from the experiment
on the pure local bentonite and beneficiated local bentonite. Table 3 also shows the results of the
physiochemical properties obtained from the experiment performed on the pure local bentonite
Table 1: Properties of Imported and local bentonite
Measured properties 20g Imported bentonite 20g Local bentonite
pH 10.21 7.95
Specific gravity 1.025 1.04
Mud density (ppg) 2.45 2.53
Viscosity (cp), 600rpm 40.00 20.70
Viscosity (cp), 300rpm 28.00 17.00
Plastic viscosity (cp) 12.00 3.70
Apparent viscosity (cp) 20.00 10.35
Yield point (lb/100 ft2) 16.00 13.33
11.00 52.50
Fluid loss (ml) at 30min

From the results above, it is observed that the filtration test performed on the local bentonite
gives a relatively high value of fluid loss. Also, the viscosities of local bentonite at 600rpm and
300rpm were extremely low when compared with the values of standard bentonite. Measured
values for other rheological properties (plastic viscosity, apparent viscosity, and yield point)
were also found to be extremely low when compared with the foreign bentonite.

Tables 2 below shows the result of the rheological parameters of the mud after various quantity
of the pure bentonites (20 g, 25 g, 30 g, 35 g, and 40 g) were beneficiated with 10 g of cassava
starch and varying concentrations of calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (4g, 5g, 6g and 7g respectively).
The mass of the local bentonite and that of calcium carbonate used in preparing the mud was
varied to examine their effect on the rheological properties of the mud, and also to investigate the
effect of cassava starch as a viscosifier on different concentrations of the local bentonite.
Table 2: Physico-chemical properties of treated mud
Measured 20g local 25g local 30g local 35g local 40g local
properties Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite
+ 4g CaCO3 + 5g + 6g CaCO3 + 7g CaCO3 + 5g CaCO3
CaCO3
+ 10g Cassava + 10g + 10g + 10g
+10g Cassava Cassava Cassava
starch
Cassava
starch starch starch
starch

PH 10.12 10.35 10.40 10.63 10.85

Mud density 2.5816 2.5802 2.6340 2.6848 2.6960

(g/l)
Viscosity 25.92 27.99 29.22 31.02 37.90
600rpm
Viscosity 24.55 26.66 27.80 29.58 36.44
300rpm
Plastic 13.7 13.9 14.2 14.4 14.6
Viscosity
(cp)
Apparent 12.25 13.3 13.9 14.79 18.22
Viscosity
(cp)
Yield point 10.85 12.7 13.6 15.18 21.84
(lb/100ft)

From the results, it was observed that the rheological properties of the mud were slightly
improved. From Table 2, the beneficiation of 20g bentonite with 4g of CaCO3 and 10g of
cassava starch gave the least improvement in its rheological properties. However, as the volume
of the local bentonite and salt concentration increased, gradual enhancement of the rheological
properties of the samples was observed From Table 2, the beneficiation of 40g bentonite with 5g
of CaCO3 and 10g of cassava starch gave the best improvement in terms of yield point.

The plastic viscosity, yield point, apparent viscosity values of the different mud samples
depended on the 600 rpm and 300 rpm readings. These viscosity values were influenced by the
addition of starch to the mud samples. The increase in the mass of bentonite leads to a greater
influence of starch on the mud samples viscosity.

The beneficiation of local bentonite with calcium carbonate led to the improvement of the
swelling clay capacity, the ability of the clay particles to flocculate, bringing about enhanced
mudflow properties. The improvement of the treated bentonite can be attributed to the following
reasons;

• The difference in mineralogy influenced by the depositional environment can influence

the mud properties (Omole et al. 2013).

• The use of the heating (thermal) and stirring (agitation) treatment procedure can also
improve the properties of the clay and this causes an increase in bentonite particle size or platelet
and enhances the conversion of calcium-based bentonite to sodium-based bentonite, increase in
Na+∕Ca2+ ratio and allow Na+ activation and swelling.

• Lastly, the improvement of mud properties can be as a result of their free swell volume
and proved by their physiochemical properties in terms of cation exchange ability, expandable
and non-expandable minerals (Magzoub et al. 2017).

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. If the water used in
the preparation of a drilling mud is too hard or the pH value is not within the range of 8.5–9.5,
then the mud will take a longer period to hydrate, or it might not hydrate fully.
 pH variations for different samples
12
10.63 10.85
10.21 10.12 10.35 10.4
10
7.95
8
PH Values

0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7
Samples

Figure 4. 9: Bar plot showing the pH variation of the various samples

Figure 4.9 shows a bar plot comparing the pH of the imported bentonite, local bentonite, and the
five different samples. A critical look at the plot indicated an increase in the pH of the mud
samples.

This increase occurred as a result of the beneficiation of the mud samples by the addition of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium carbonate is alkaline in nature, as it is a strong base. The
higher the bentonite and sodium carbonate concentrations, the higher the pH values of the mud
samples.

Figure 4. 10: Plot showing mud density variations

A high mud density manages the formation pressure and improves the stability of the well bore.
Figure 4.10 is a bar plot showing the comparison between the densities of the standard bentonite,
local bentonite, and the five different test samples. The different dial readings were compared
with that of the imported bentonite, and it was observed that there was a progressive rise in the
densities of the mud samples. The addition of a viscosifier to a mud sample can lead to an
increase in the mud density. An increase in mud density was greatly influenced by adding
cassava starch to the different samples. Increase in the volume of the bentonite resulted in a
higher effect of cassava starch on the mud samples increasing the mud density of the samples.

Viscosity variation for different samples

Series1 Series2
45
40.2
40 37.9
36.44
35
31.02
28.8 29.22 29.58
30 27.99 26.66 27.8
25.92
24.55
25
Viscosity

20.7
20 17
15
10
5
0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7
Sample

Figure 4. 11: Viscosity variation for different samples

Mud viscosity illustrates the amount of resistance of the fluid to shear stress. The viscosity of the
drilling fluid can be improved upon by treatment with additives such as starch. Figure 4.11
shows the comparison between the viscosities at 300rpm and 600rpm of the imported bentonite,
local bentonite, and the five different samples. From the chart, it was observed that there were
generally poor values of viscosity of untreated local bentonite when compared with the standard
mud sample. However, with beneficiation, there was an improvement in the viscosity of the
treated mud samples when compared with the untreated local bentonite. Cassava starch is
suitable for increasing viscosity of the clay suspension and stabilizing the clay suspension. The
higher the bentonite concentration, the higher the starch effect on the viscosity of the mud
samples. From the result, the most improved viscosity was observed in sample seven (40 g of
bentonite + 5 g of CaCO3 + 10 g of cassava) having the highest concentration of bentonite.

Plastic/apparent viscosity variation for samples

Series1 Series2
25

20
20
18.22
Plastic/apparent viscosity

15 13.9 13.3 14.2 13.9 14.4 14.79 14.6

13.7
12 12.25
10.35
10

5 3.7

0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7

Samples

Figure 4. 12: Viscosity variation for different samples

The resistance of the flow of fluids due to mechanical friction in the drilling mud such as the
shape and size of solid, concentration of solid, viscosity of the fluid phase in the continuous
phase is known as Plastic viscosity. Figure 4.12 above shows the comparison between the plastic
and apparent viscosities of the standard bentonite, local bentonite, and the five different samples.
The values used for the plot of plastic viscosity was obtained from the difference between
measurements at 600rpm and measurements at 300rpm.

The measure of the viscosity of a fluid at a given shear rate is known as Apparent viscosity.
Apparent viscosity is half of the 600rpm dial value. The apparent viscosity values are dependent
on the 600rpm dial values. Therefore, the highest value at 600rpm will yield the highest apparent
viscosity. Figure 4.12 shows the comparison between the apparent viscosities of the standard
bentonite, local bentonite, and the five different samples. From the plot, sample seven (40g of
Local Bentonite Clay + 5g of Na2CO3 + 10g of cassava starch) had the highest apparent
viscosity value. An increased bentonite concentration led to increased apparent viscosity.
Compared with the imported bentonite, the values increased progressively and there was
significant improvement in apparent viscosity when beneficiated with Na2CO3 and cassava
starch.

Yield point variation for different samples

25
21.84
20
16 15.18
15 13.6
Yield Points

13.33 12.7
10.85
10

0
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7
Samples

Figure 4. 13: Yield Points variations for various samples

The resistance of the initial fluid flow or the needed stress to move the fluid is known to be the
yield point. The yield point shows the capacity of drilling mud to transport cuttings to the
surface. Figure 4.13 above shows the comparison between the yield point of the standard
bentonite, local bentonite, and the five different samples. From the plot, the different yield point
values were as the difference between the values of viscosity at 300rpm and plastic viscosity.
Since there was a significant improvement in the reading of viscosity at 300rpm and a slight
improvement in plastic viscosity, the yield point of the samples improved significantly when
compared with the imported bentonite.
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

This experiment studied the effect of Bentonite clay properties in drilling mud . Studies
compared the rheological properties of Bentonite clay and How its effect on drilling mud. The
following conclusions can be drawn from this study:

a. The concentration of Bentonite is vital to control the rheological properties of drilling

mud. Significant changes in mud density, plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strength
were noted to correspond to changes in the concentration of Bentonite.

b. Bentonite gave a significantly high value of density, yield point, gel strength and plastic
viscosity when used in formulation of drilling mud.

c. The density, plastic viscosity, yield point and 10-sec. gel strength have direct
relationship due to the percentage weight of the individual sample.

d. The specific gravity of the bentonite determines the performance of the mud in terms of
their plastic viscosity, yield point, 10-sec. gel strength and density.

Basic mud engineering knowledge dictates the requirements for good hole cleaning, reducing
friction between the drill string and casing and/or formation, and maintaining hole stability.
These requirements become critical when a highly deviated well is drilled.
5.2 Recommendation

Even if the best mud system for delicate formations could be designed, continuous monitoring
and control of drilling muds are crucial for successful drilling. As the mud circulates and
interacts with formations and drilled solids its composition continually changes. When
concentrations of various mud additives are continually monitored and maintained, the desired
results could be achieved. Simultaneously with the development of more effective mud systems,
understanding of shale/fluid interaction is necessary. Completely satisfactory answers to
questions such as: which drilling fluid to use for drilling a particular formation, or how long can
we keep the hole exposed to a particular fluid without causing wellbore instability, can be given
only after such an understanding. In view of drilling costs it is imperative to minimize potential
drilling failures and assess future risks
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