See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/282354048

Geological Overview of Oil Shale

Thesis · May 2013

CITATIONS READS

0 2,705

1 author:

Abdelrahman Ahmed
Zagazig University
4 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Abdelrahman Ahmed on 01 October 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Zagazig University
Faculty of sciences
Department Of Geology

Prepared By

Abdelrahman Ahmed Ali Abdelrahman

4th year Special Geology
In partial fulfillment of the requirement to the degree of B.SC. in Geology

Under Supervisor

DR . Fatma Sayed Ramadan

Ass. Prof. of Sedimentary Rocks

2013
 Acknowledgements

Thanks God who helped us to finish this work. Author wishs to express
their deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Fekri Abu Al-Enin, Head of Geology
Department Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, for his kind interest,
encouragement and valuable advice.

Author is grateful to Dr. Fatma Sayed Ramadan, Ass. Prof. of

Sedimentary Rocks in Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig
University, for suggesting the subject, supervision of the whole work and for
her valuable help and continuous encouragement throughout the course of
study.

1
 Contents

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 5

CHAPTER II : GEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF OIL SHALE…………………………….9

CHAPTER III : DISTRIBUTION OF BLACK SHALES IN EGYPT …………………….14

CHAPTER IV : COMPOSITION OF BLACK SHALE……………………………………..17

CHAPTER V : EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING………………………………………………………..21

CHAPTER VI : APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS…………………………………….24

CHAPTER VII : ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS………………………………27

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………....30

2
 List of Figures
Fig (1) showing fresh oil shale…………………………………………………………………....8

Fig (2) showing heating oil shale…………………………………………………………………8

Fig (3) showing Hutton's classification of oil shale………………………………………….…11

Fig (4) showing Outcrop of oil shale ……………………………………………………….. 13

Fig (5) showing oil shale production from 1880 to 2010…………...…………………….….. 13

Fig (6) showing countries with large oil shale resources……………………………..….……13

Fig (7) showing weathering of black shale resulting in fissility and disintegration together with

formation of secondary minerals……………………………………………………………...20

Fig (8) showing mineralogical composition of black shale………………………………….20

Fig (9) showing oil shale extraction…………………………………………………………...23

Fig (10) showing Shell in situ………………………………………………………………….23

Fig (11) showing black shale industry pollution……………………………………………..29

3
 List of Tables
Table (1) Recoverable shale oil resources of the world…………………………….12

Table (2) Mineralogical composition of black shale………………………………….18

Table (3) Oil Shale Assay Data………………………………..………………………19

4
5
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Oil shale, also known as kerogen shale, is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary

rock containing kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds) from which
liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil (not to be confused with tight oil—crude oil occurring naturally in
shales) can be produced Fig. (1). Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil; however,
extracting shale oil from oil shale is more costly than the production of conventional crude oil both
financially and in terms of its environmental impact Deposits of oil shale occur around the world,
including major deposits in the United States. Estimates of global deposits range from 2.8 to 3.3
trillion barrels (450×109 to 520×109 m3) of recoverable oil shale in place.

Heating oil shale to a sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process
of pyrolysis to yield a vapor Fig. (2). Upon cooling the vapor, the liquid shale oil is separated
from combustible oil-shale gas (the term shale gas can also refer to gas occurring naturally in shales).
Oil shale can also be burnt directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for power generation and district
heating or used as a raw material in chemical and construction-materials processing.

Oil shale gains attention as a potential abundant source of oil whenever the price of crude oil
rises. At the same time, oil-shale mining and processing raise a number of environmental concerns,
such as land use, waste disposal , water use, waste-water management, greenhouse-gas
emissions and air pollution.

Estonia and China have well-established oil shale industries, and Brazil, Germany, Russia also
utilize oil shale.

Oil shales differ from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits which contain petroleum (tight oil) that
is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the Bakken
Formation, Pierre Shale, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation.

the most common production technology has been surface mining, followed by processing in
above-ground retorts. Process temperatures are about 500°C, which converts kerogen to oil in about an
hour. This approach has the virtue of simplicity, but requires expensive surface facilities, and the
disposal of vast quantities of spent rock. Both have significant economic and environmental problems.

6
 Raw product quality is poor compared to conventional crude oil; however upgrading using
conventional hydroprocessing techniques yields high-quality finished products. The mining + retort
method is an old approach that could benefit from new technology. Improved methods for spent shale
remediation would clearly make this approach more acceptable. Innovations that allowed oil shale to
be processed at lower temperature without an increase in reaction time would result in improved
economics and improved product quality.
An alternative process still in development, in situ conversion, has captured the industry’s
attention. Wells are drilled, and the oil shale reservoir is slowly heated to about 350°C, at which point
kerogen is converted to oil and gas on a time scale of months. Using an in situ conversion process at
pilot scale, Shell has extracted a good quality, middle-distillate refinery feedstock, requiring no further
upgrading. In order to contain nascent fluids, and to prevent ingress of ground water into the reaction
zone, Shell generates a freeze wall around the production area. Chevron has proposed a simpler
technique that takes advantage of the low hydraulic permeability of oil shale formations to isolate
heated process volumes from surrounding aquifers. Since in situ conversion technology is just
emerging, it is not yet clear which specific technologies can advance the state of the art over the
coming decades. However, the efficient use of heat is almost certain to be an important issue. The
ability to map the temperature and the saturation of generated oil and gas throughout the reservoir
would enable advanced control strategies. It will also be useful to monitor the freeze wall or low
permeability barrier, to ensure that there is no fluid mixing between the reaction zone and surrounding
formations.
As a domestic source of transportation fuel, oil shale could compete with heavy oil and coal-
derived liquids. Oil shale, heavy oil, and coal are all abundant in North America. Canadian tar sand
production is already commercial. Coal can be treated with coal-derived solvents and gaseous
hydrogen at high temperature to produce high grade synthetic crude. An advantage of oil shale is that
it has the potential to produce a superior liquid-fuel product. However, the direct and indirect costs of
fuel production from oil shale have not yet been fully evaluated.

7
 Fig. (1) shows fresh oil shale

Fig. (2) shows heating oil shale

8
9
 CHAPTER II

GEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF OIL SHALE

Geology

Oil shale, an organic-rich sedimentary rock, belongs to the group of fuels. It does not have a
definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have
discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age,
type of kerogen, and depositional history and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified
as shales in the strict sense. Their common feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and
generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition.

Oil shale differs from bitumen-impregnated rocks (oil sands and petroleum reservoir
rocks), humic coals and carbonaceous shale. While oil sands do originate from the biodegradation of
oil, heat and pressure have not transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum, that means that
its maturation does not exceed early catagenetic.

Oil shale contains a lower percentage of organic matter than coal. In commercial grades of oil
shale the ratio of organic matter to mineral matter lies approximately between 0.75and 1.5. At the
same time, the organic matter in oil shale has an atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon (H/C)
approximately 1.2 to 1.8 times lower than for crude oil and about 1.5 to 3 times higher than for coals.
The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms, such as the remains
of algae, spores, pollen, plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and
cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants. The mineral matter in oil shale includes various
fine-grained silicates and carbonates.

Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as carbonate-rich
shales, siliceous shales, or cannel shales. Another classification, known as the van Krevelen diagram,
assigns kerogen types, depending on the hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen content of oil shales' original
organic matter. Hutton's classification designates oil shales as terrestrial, lacustrine (lake-bottom-
deposited), or marine (ocean bottom-deposited), based on the environment of the initial biomass
deposit. Known oil shales are predominantly aquatic (marine, lacustrine) origin. Hutton's classification

10
 scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil Fig. (3).

Fig. (3) shows Hutton's classification of oil shale

History

Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without
any processing. Britons of the Iron Age also used to polish it and form it into ornaments. The first UK
patent for extracting oil from oil shale was British Crown Patent 303 granted to Becker and Serle in
1684. Modern industrial mining of oil shale began in 1837 in Autun, France, followed by exploitation
in Scotland, Germany, and several other countries.

Operations during the 19th century focused on the production of kerosene, lamp oil,
and paraffin; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during
the Industrial Revolution. Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and ammonium sulfate were also
produced. The European oil-shale industry expanded immediately before World War I due to limited
access to conventional petroleum resources and to the mass production of automobiles and trucks,
which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption.

Although the Estonian and Chinese oil-shale industries continued to grow after World War II,
most other countries abandoned their projects due to high processing costs and the availability of
cheaper petroleum. Following the 1973 oil crisis, world production of oil shale reached a peak of
46 million tons in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tons in 2000, due to competition from cheap
conventional petroleum in the 1980s Fig. (5) .

11
 On 2 May 1982, known in some circles as "Black Sunday", Exxon canceled its
US$5 billion Colony Shale Oil Project near Parachute, Colorado because of low oil-prices and
increased expenses, laying off more than 2,000 workers and leaving a trail of home-foreclosures and
small-business bankruptcies. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Consolidated
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 which among other things abolished the United
States' Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program.

The global oil-shale industry began to revive at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2003, an
oil-shale development program restarted in the United States. Authorities introduced a commercial
leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in 2005, in
accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 Fig. (6) and Table (1) .

Table (1) Illustrates recoverable shale oil resources of the world

Country Recoverable Resources
(billion bbls)
United States 626
Brazil 300
Russia 41
Zaire 38
Australia 17
Canada 16
Italy 13
China 10
Total world 1,067

12
Fig. (4) shows Outcrop of oil shale Fig. (5) shows oil shale production from 1880 to 2010

Fig. (6) shows countries with large oil shale resources

13
14
 CHAPTER III

Distribution of black shales in Egypt

The black shales are widely distributed in Egypt in several horizons of different geologic ages.
No serious approach had been made to evaluate their geological as well as their economic
significance. This may have been due to the lack of interest in developing and using these
economically important deposits as a source of fuel, most probably due to the competition of oil. Ball
(1916) and Hume (1927) were the first authors who recorded in outcrops Cenomanian marls and
sandstones which contain hydrocarbons in the form of oil and asphaltic matter at many localities, e.g.
Wadi Abu Quda, Itala el-Zur and Nazzazat, Gulf of Suez area.

Said (1962) mentioned that some carbonaceous shale bands containing plant remains of
Paleozoic age are recorded at Rod El Hammal, Wadi Araba. Oil shales were also reported from Cabal
Tanka, Wadi Matulla, North Ras Gharib, Abu Shaar, Judal, and Ras Dib. In the Fayum region to the
west of Gharaq and Wadi Maela, the Middle Eocene limestone is bituminous. The middle chalky
limestone to the east of Tura is distinctively bituminous. The oil shales are present in different Upper
Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary formations: Duwi Formation (Phosphate bearing rock), Dakhla Shale and
Esna Shale in the region between Safaga and Quseir in the Red sea coast. The Dakhla Shale possesses
the horizon richest in organic matter. The Dakhla Shale directly overlies the upper phosphate bed. The
average amount of oil yielded by Fischer assay from Cretaceous oil shale amounts to 20 - 45 gal/ton
(Robison and Troger 1983; Troger 1984). Black shales also occur in many localities in the Western
Desert. Among the important localities of oil shale is the one recorded in Abu Tartur area which yield
considerable amount of oil (Troger 1984).

obtaining concentrates enriched with organic matter that could be suitable for a retorting
process from two different types of black shales; these are oil shale from the Safaga area on the Red
Sea Coast, and carbonaceous shale from the Abu-Zenima area, west Central Sinai. X-ray diffraction
and optical polarising microscope are used in evaluating black shale minerals. Attrition scrubbing,
hydro cyclone separation, jigging and flotation were conducted for enrichment of organic matter in the
black shale samples. Mineralogical studies revealed that, oil shale samples contain bituminous
calcareous clay stone, quartz, apatite and pyrite, while the carbonaceous shale contains carbonaceous
matter, quartz, and clay minerals. Rabah mine oil shale contains 31.35% and Abu-Zenima
carbonaceous shale contains 35.21% organic matter. The results of the different separation techniques

15
indicate that jigging, hydro cyclone and flotation techniques successively enriched the organic matter
in the oil shale. Meanwhile hydro cyclone could enrich the organic matter in the carbonaceous shale.

16
17
 CHAPTER IV

Composition of black shale

There is no precise definition of black shale and the term can be applied to any fine-grained,
dark-colored, usually organic-rich sediment (Nijenhuis et al. 1999). The contents in black shale can be
divided into three main components: silicate minerals, sulphides and organic components. The
proportions vary due to the heterogeneity of the shales, samples, the sulphides between 5 and 20 %
and the organic matter between 10 and 20 % Black shale is laminated and fissile, meaning that it splits
into thin sheets, especially upon weathering Fig. (7).

Mineralogical composition

The mineral composition of black shale varies both between different formations and within a
formation the dominating silicate minerals are quarts and clay minerals, especially illite-muscovite.
Furthermore are K-feldspar, chlorite, kaolinite, muscovite and glauconite commonly found in black
shales Table (2) and Fig. (8).The main minerals in black shale are exemplified as being 20-30 % quarts,
12-30 % illite-muscovite, 0-20 % K-feldspar, 0-5 % glauconite, 0-4 % kaolinite and 0-2 % chlorite. In
the same shale pyrite normally constitutes about 10 % but sometimes as much as 25 %. Fine-grained
pyrite is often gathered as layers in the shale. Coarser pyrite crystals are also found, normally as a
result of secondary formation. Also calcite can be found as fine- grained layers in the shale. The
amount of calcite is usually below 1% even though contents of 6-7 % occur in some areas. Calcite also
occurs as stinkstone lenses consisting of almost pure calcite or in mixture with other minerals. The
amount of stinkstone lenses in the shale can vary significantly within a layer. As a comparison, (non-
weathered) black shale samples from the Dakhla Formation in Egypt showed a great variability in its
mineral composition with 0-66 % calcite, 0-63 % smectite, 0-91 % dolomite, 0-23 % kaolinite, 0-16 %
quarts, 0-10 % chlorite and 0-5 % illite. The amount of pyrite was often minor, but abundances of up
to 27 % occurred and oil shale assay data illustrated on Table (3) .

Table (2) Illustrates mineralogical composition of black shale

Primary Kerogen, Quartz, Feldspar, Clay,Carbonate, Pyrite

Composition

Secondary Uranium, Iron, Vanadium, Nickel, Molybdenum

Composition

18
 Table (3) Illustrates Oil Shale Assay Data

Description Mean

Oil Grade (wt.%, SFA - 11%

ZFM)

Oil Density (g/ml) 0.9791

Oil Yield (L/tonne) 111

Total Organic Carbon 13%

(wt.%)

CaCO3 (wt.%) 54%

Total Sulphur (wt.%) 3%

Free Moisture (wt.%) 3%

Calorific Value (kcal/kg) 1637

Calorific Value (BTU/Lb) 2946

Oil Shale Density (g/cc) 1.87

19
Fig. (7) shows weathering of black shale resulting in fissility and disintegration together with
formation of secondary minerals.

Fig. (8) shows mineralogical composition of black shale

20
21
 CHAPTER V

Extraction and processing

Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere, after
which one can burn the shale directly to generate electricity, or undertake further
processing. The most common methods of surface mining involve open pit mining and
strip. These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the deposits of oil
shale, and become practical when the deposits occur near the surface. Underground mining
of oil shale, which removes less of the overlying material, employs the room-and-pillar
method. The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above
ground (ex-situ processing), although several newer technologies perform this underground
(on-site or in-situ processing) Fig. (9). In either case, the chemical process of pyrolysis
converts the kerogen in the oil shale to shale oil (synthetic crude oil) and oil shale gas.
Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in the absence of oxygen to a
temperature at which kerogen decomposes (pyrolysis) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid
residue. This usually takes place between 450 °C (842 °F) and 500 °C (932 °F). The
process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures (300 °C/570 °F), but
proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures.

In-situ processing involves heating the oil shale underground Fig. (10). Such
technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ex-
situ processes, since they can access the material at greater depths than surface mines can.
Several companies have patented methods for in-situ retorting. However, most of these
methods remain in the experimental phase. One can distinguish true in-situ processes (TIS)
and modified in-situ processes (MIS). True in-situ processes do not involve mining the oil
shale. Modified in-situ processes involve removing part of the oil shale and bringing it to
the surface for modified in-situ retorting in order to create permeability for gas flow in a
rubble chimney.

22
 Hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies exist; however, only a few
dozen have undergone testing. As of 2006, only four technologies remained in commercial
use: Kiviter, Galoter, Fushun, and Petrosix.

Fig. (9) shows oil shale extraction

Fig. (10) shows Shell in situ

23
24
 CHAPTER VI

Applications and products

Industry can use oil shale as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it
(like coal) to drive steam turbines; some of these plants employ for district
heating of homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also
serve in the production of specialty carbon fibers, adsorbent carbons, carbon
black, phenols, resins, glues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement,
bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, rock-
wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale use for
production of these items remains small or only in its experimental stages. Some
oil shales yield sulfur, ammonia, alumina, soda ash, uranium, as shale-oil
extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952, a marine type
of Dictyonema shale served for uranium production in Sillamäe, Estonia, and
between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used alum shale for the same purposes. Oil shale
gas has served as a substitute for natural gas, but as of 2009, producing oil shale
gas as a natural-gas substitute remained economically infeasible.

The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all
applications. It may contain higher concentrations of olefins, oxygen, and nitrogen than
conventional crude oil. Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or arsenic content. By
comparison with West Texas Intermediate, the benchmark standard for crude oil in
the futures-contract market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0%
to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a
maximum of 0.42%. The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may rise even
up to 9.5%. The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation
oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials mean that the oil must undergo
considerable upgrading (hydro treating) before serving as oil-refinery feedstock. Above-
ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower API gravity shale oil than the in
situ processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle-distillates such as kerosene, jet

25
fuel, and diesel fuel. Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel
fuels, increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s. However, appropriate refining processes
equivalent to hydro cracking can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon
(gasoline).

26
27
 CHAPTER VII

Environmental considerations

Mining oil shale involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in

surface mining than in underground mining. They include acid drainage induced by the
sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials, the
introduction of metals including mercury into surface-water and groundwater,
increased erosion, sulfur-gas emissions, and air pollution caused by the production
of particulates during processing, transport, and support activities. In 2002, about 97% of
air pollution, 86% of total waste and 23% of water pollution in Estonia came from the
power industry, which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production Fig. (11).

Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the
ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material.
In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion
include carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Environmentalists oppose production and usage
of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil
fuels. Section 526 of the Energy Independence and Security Actprohibits United States
government agencies from buying oil produced by processes that produce more greenhouse
gas emissions than would traditional petroleum. Experimental in situ conversion processes
and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the
future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including
groundwater pollution. Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale
processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected
examples include , pyridine, and various alkyl homologues of pyridine.

Some commentators have expressed concerns over the oil shale industry's use of
water. In 2002, the oil shale-fired power industry used 91% of the water consumed in
Estonia. Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five
barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil. A 2008 programmatic by the US Bureau
of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 US

28
gallons (7.6 to 38 l; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 ton) of
processed oil shale. In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as
much water.

Water concerns become particularly sensitive issues in arid regions, such as the
western US and Israel's Negev Desert, where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction
despite a water shortage.

Environmental activists, including members of Greenpeace, have organized strong

protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, Queensland Energy Resources put the
proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004.

Fig. (11) shows black shale industry pollution

29
30
 REFERENCES

1. Alali, Jamal (2006). "Jordan oil shale, availability, distribution, and investment
opportunity". International Oil Shale Conference. Amman, Jordan.
2. Alali, Jamal; Abu Salah, Abdelfattah; Yasin, Suha M.; Al Omari, Wasfi (2006)
(PDF). Oil Shale in Jordan. Natural Resources Authority of Jordan.
3. Allix, Pierre; Burnham, Alan K. (2010). "Coaxing Oil from Shale". Oilfield
Review (Schlumberger) 22(4)
4. Altun, N. E.; Hiçyilmaz, C.; Hwang, J.-Y.; Suat Bağci, A.; Kök, M. V. (2006). "Oil
shales in the world and Turkey; reserves, current situation and future prospects: a
review" (PDF). Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal(Estonian Academy
Publishers) 23 (3): 211–227.
5. Andrews, Anthony (2006). Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy.
6. Azulai, Yuval (2011). "We are not drying up the Dead Sea". Globes.
7. Bartis, James T.; LaTourrette, Tom; Dixon, Lloyd; Peterson, D.J.; Cecchine, Gary
(2005). Oil Shale Development in the United States. Prospects and Policy Issues.
Prepared for the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of
Energy. RAND Corporation.
8. Brendow, K. (2003). "Global oil shale issues and perspectives. Synthesis of the
Symposium on Oil Shale. 18–19 November, Tallinn" . Oil Shale. A Scientific-
Technical Journal (Estonian Academy Publishers) 20 (1): 81–92
9. Burnham, A. K. (2003). Slow Radio-Frequency Processing of Large Oil Shale
Volumes to Produce Petroleum-like Shale Oil. Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. UCRL-ID-155045
10. Burnham, Alan K.; McConaghy, James R. (2006). "Comparison of the Acceptability
of Various Oil Shale Processes". 26th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden,
Colorado: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. UCRL-CONF-226717. https://e-
reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/341283.pdf. Retrieved 2007-06-23.
11. Cane, R.F. (1976). "The origin and formation of oil shale". In Teh Fu Yen; Chilingar,
George V.. Oil Shale. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 56.
12. Carroll, Alan R. (2007). "Upper Permian Oil Shale Deposits of Northwest
China:World's Largest?". 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado.
13. Collier, Robert (2006). "Coaxing oil from huge U.S. shale deposits". San Francisco
Chronicle.
14. Dyni, John R. (2006). Geology and resources of some world oil shale deposits.
Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5294. United States Department of the
Interior, United States Geological Survey.
15. Dyni, John R. (2010). "Oil Shale". In Clarke, Alan W.; Trinnaman, Judy A. Survey of
energy resources . WEC. pp. 93–123.
16. Francu, Juraj; Harvie, Barbra; Laenen, Ben; Siirde, Andres; Veiderma, Mihkel
(2007) . A study on the EU oil shale industry viewed in the light of the Estonian
experience. A report by EASAC to the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy

31
 of the European Parliament. European Academies Science Advisory Council. pp. 12–
13; 18–19; 23–24;
17. Hamarneh, Yousef; Alali, Jamal; Sawaged, Suzan (1998). Oil Shale Resources
Development In Jordan. Amman: Natural Resources Authority of Jordan.
18. Hutton, A.C. (1987). "Petrographic classification of oil shales". International Journal
of Coal Geology (Elsevier Science)
19. Hutton, Adrian C. (1994). "Organic petrography and oil
shales". Energeia .http://www.caer.uky.edu/energeia/PDF/vol5_5.pdf. Retrieved
2012-12-19.
20. Laherrère, Jean (2005). Review on oil shale data. Hubbert Peak.
21. Lee, Sunggyu (1991). Oil Shale Technology. CRC Press. pp. 6, 10.
22. Louw, S.J.; Addison, J. (1985). Studies of the Scottish oil shale industry. Vol.1
History of the industry, working conditions, and mineralogy of Scottish and Green
River formation shales. Final report on US Department of Energy. Institute of
Occupational Medicine. pp. 35.
23. Moody, Richard (2007). "UK Oil and Gas Shales—Definitions and Distribution in
Time and Space". History of On-Shore Hydrocarbon Use in the
UK. Weymouth: Geological Society of London.
24. Nield, Ted (2007). "Shale of the century". Geoscientist (Geological Society of
London) 17 (2). reprinted December 2009 in European Geologist 28, pp. 5–8
25. O'Neil, William D. (2001). Oil as a strategic factor. The supply of oil in the first half
of the 21st century, and its strategic implications for the U.S.. CNA Corporation.
pp. 94–95.
26. Ots, Arvo (2007). "Estonian oil shale properties and utilization in power
plants" . Energetika(Lithuanian Academy of Sciences Publishers) 53 (2): 8–18.
27. Qian, Jialin; Wang, Jianqiu; Li, Shuyuan (2003). "Oil Shale Development in
China". Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal (Estonian Academy
Publishers) 20 (3): 356–359.
28. Qian, Jialin; Wang, Jianqiu; Li, Shuyuan (2007). "One Year's Progress in the Chinese
Oil Shale Business"(PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado: China
University of Petroleum.
29. Schora, F. C.; Tarman, P. B.; Feldkirchner, H. L.; Weil, S. A. (1976). "Hydrocarbon
fuels from oil shale".Proceedings (American Institute of Chemical Engineers)
30. Tiikma, Laine; Johannes, Ille; Pryadka, Natalja (2002). "Co-pyrolysis of waste
plastics with oil shale". Proceedings. Symposium on Oil Shale 2002, Tallinn, Estonia:
76.
31. Urov, K.; Sumberg, A. (1999). "Characteristics of oil shales and shale-like rocks of
known deposits and outcrops" . Oil Shale. A Scientific-Technical Journal (Estonian
Academy Publishers) 16 (3 Special): 1–64.ISBN 9985-50-274-4.
32. van Krevelen, Dirk Willem (1993). Coal--typology, physics, chemistry, constitution.
Coal Science and Technology Series (3 ed.). Elsevier.

32
 33. West, Ian (2008). "Kimmeridge - The Blackstone - Oil Shale". University of
Southampton.
34. Yin, Liang (2006). "Current status of oil shale industry in Fushun, China" .
International Oil Shale Conference. Amman, Jordan.
35. Youngquist, Walter (1998). "Shale Oil - The Elusive Energy" . Hubbert Center
Newsletter .

33

View publication stats