CHAPTER ON GRAVITY

SURVEYING METHODS
 Gravity Method
↓
Measures spatial variations in the
strength of the earth’s gravitational field
↓
Maps spatial variations in the
density of the subsurface
↓
Geologic model based on
external constraints and mapped
density variations
 GRAVITY
Gravity is not uniform. It is a function
of the mass of the earth, the mean
radius of the earth, the angular velocity of the earth, the
elevation of the observation location and surface topography
in proximity to the observation location

The mean value of gravity at the earth’s

surface is about 9.80 m/s2.

Basic gravitational equation:

g = GM/R2
G - gravitational constant
M - mass of the Earth
g directed towards
center of mass R - radius of Earth
It also varies because of GRAVITY
small-scale density variations
within the earth’s crust (variable depth to bedrock,
presence of voids, variations in lithology, etc.)

The mean value of gravity at the earth’s

surface is about 9.80 m/s2.

Basic gravitational equation:

g = GM/R2
G - gravitational constant
M - mass of the Earth
g directed towards R - radius of Earth
center of mass
 GRAVITY
Gravimeters are generally used to measure relative variations
in the earth’s gravitational field.
Normally, we’re only interested in variations that are caused by
subsurface geological features of interest (variable depth to
bedrock, presence of karstic voids, variations in lithology, etc.).
 GRAVITY
So we go to great lengths to isolate the
“residual” gravity anomalies associated
with the subsurface features of interest
from those that are due to changes in
latitude, elevation, etc.
We do this by applying reduction
corrections and filters to our recorded
field data, thereby isolating the anomalies
caused by features of interest.
 GRAVITY

20
“Reduced” Gravity Profile
Δg ( gm – gΦ )

-20 isolated → Residual (isolated)

anomaly gravity anomalies
are often interpreted
quantitatively

surface

subsurface void
 GRAVITY

20
Gravity Profile (mgals)
Δg ( gm – gΦ )

-20 Ideally, we can estimate size,

shape, depth & density of the
causative feature based on
the width, shape & amplitude
of residual anomaly curve

surface

subsurface void
Variable depth
to bedrock

Gravity
 Gravity

Δg - negative

Salt
Dome

ρ = 2.2
g/cm2 ρ = 2.6 g/cm2

Gravity anomaly over the Grand Saline Salt Dome,

Texas, USA
GRAVITY
Residual gravity anomalies are generally
interpreted quantitatively, and used to generate
model images of the causative subsurface
feature of interest.
The user must remember that the
interpretation of gravity data is non-unique!
Physical constraints (depth, density contrasts,
volume, etc.) are necessary to ensure the
output model images are reasonable.
Strengths
• Gravimeters respond to density variations
• Data can be acquired anywhere gravimeter can be placed and
survey data acquired
• Data can be interpreted quantitatively
• Model (depth, shape, size, density) of target can often be
generated
Limitations
•Gravimeters respond to density
variations – only!
•Very precise surveying control is
required so that elevation and latitude
corrections can be applied
•Gravity signatures are superposed!
•Inversions are non-unique!
•External constraints are required
Significant Applications

• Mapping air-filled cavities in karst terrain

• Estimating depth to bedrock
• Determining volume of organic material in
filled-in lakes or karst features
• Determining in-situ rock/soil densities
• Mapping abandoned underground mines
• Estimating tonnage of ore
• Determining volumes of available fill
Main Text
of
PPT
Lecture on
Gravity Method
 Basic Theory
If the earth was a spherical, non-rotating, homogeneous body
of mass M (under these conditions the mass would act as
though it was concentrated
at the earth's center), then
the force of attraction
exerted on a secondary
mass m at its surface
would be given by:

F = GMm/R2
 Basic Theory

If the earth was a spherical, non-rotating, homogeneous body

of mass M (under these conditions the mass would act as
though it was concentrated
at the earth's center), then
the force of attraction
exerted on a secondary
mass m at its surface
would be given by:

F = GMm/r2
where

G = (6.67428 + 0.00067)
x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
 Basic Theory

The gravitational field (g; gravity) of the earth at any

distance r from the center of the earth would be:

g = GM/r2

from

F = GMm/r2 = mg
 Basic Theory

Consider a body of mass m on this idealized (spherical,

uniform, non-rotating) earth’s surface

g = GM/r2 (gravity)
and

mg = GMm/r2 = F (weight)

where r is the radius of the earth

and g is gravitational acceleration,
or simply gravity. The weight of
the secondary body is mg. Note
that g is a vector quantity being
directed from the center of mass m,
towards the center of mass M.
 Basic Theory

g = GM/r2
On such an earth, gravity would be constant. However this is
not the case because the earth is non-spherical, rotates, and
has irregular topography and internal mass distribution.
 The Real Earth!
The gravitational attraction of the earth at its surface is
approximately 9.8 m/s2. The earth's gravitational field is not
uniform on its surface, rather it varies as a function of latitude,
elevation, surficial topography, and density changes (related to
the heterogeneity of the earth).
 to digress …. The Real
Earth!

In the CGS system the basic unit of gravity is the Gal,

where
9.8 m/s2 = 980 Gal
1 mGal = 0.001 Gal
1 μGal = 0.001mGal = 10-6 Gal
1 gu (gravity unit) = 0.1 mGal = 10-4 Gal

Variations on the earth’s surface (due to shallow geologic

causes) are often on the order of mgals
 The Real Earth!
The earth’s gravitational field (at mean sea level) is higher in
polar regions than in equatorial regions. At a given latitude, it
is higher at low elevations and lower at high elevations.

The mean value of gravity at the earth’s

surface is about 9.80 m/s2.

Basic gravitational equation:

g = GM/R2
G - gravitational constant
M - mass of the Earth
g directed towards
center of mass R - radius of Earth
 The Real
“Reduced” Gravity Profile Earth!
20
Δg ( gm – gΦ )

-20 isolated →
anomaly

surface

subsurface void

The earth's gravitational field is also slightly lower above

less dense earth material and slightly higher above more
dense earth material.
 The Real
“Reduced” Gravity Profile Earth!
20
Δg ( gm – gΦ )

-20 isolated →
anomaly

surface

subsurface void

Above an air-filled cavern, the earth’s gravitational field is

lowered. The difference in the earth's gravitational field
would be small however, typically on the order of 1:108.
 The Real Earth!
Scientists have developed a formula we can use to
calculate the theoretical gravitational field of the earth at
mean sea level at any observation location.
 The Real
If we know Earth!
the 1) latitude
of our
observation
location, 2) the
elevation of our
observation
location,
3) the average
density of the material underlying our observation location, and
4) the proximal topography, we can calculate the gravitational
field of the earth at our observation location using the following
formula:

gobs = gtheoretical – gelevation + gmass – gterrain

(this does not take small scale density variations into considerations)
 The Real
Earth!

gobs = gtheoretical
– gelevation
+ gmass
- gterrain
gobs = gtheoretical
– gelevation
+ gmass
- gterrain

The Real
Earth!
gobs = gtheoretical
– gelevation
+ gmass
- gterrain

The Real
Earth!
 gobs = gtheoretical – gelevation + gmass – gterrain

This formula does not take small scale

density variations into considerations!!!
 The Real
Earth!

excess mass = vol x ∆

∆ = body – slab

If we wanted to consider small-scale density

variations, we could simply calculate the gravity
anomaly associated with body’s excess mass
and factor it into the equation.
 The equation now becomes:

gobs = gtheoretical – gelevation + gmass – gterrain + gr

gr is the gravity
anomaly (termed
residual) associated
with the body of
excess mass.
gr can be calculated
for complex bodies
using numerical
method approaches.
The Real
Earth!
 The Real Earth!

gobs = gtheoretical – gelevation + gmass – gterrain + gr

The process of
generating gravity
data for a geologic
model is termed
“forward modeling”.
This is essentially
the opposite of
inversion
(interpretation).
When we interpret
data, we generate a
model from gravity
data.
So what are our objectives when we conduct a
gravity investigation of the shallow subsurface (for
geotechnical, geological, hydrological, etc.,
purposes)?
Gravity Surveying: Objectives

When gravity surveying (for geotechnical

purposes, especially) our objectives are to: 1)
measure absolute or relative changes in the
earth's gravitational field; 2) isolate those
variations attributable to small-scale density
changes within the earth; and 3) interpret the
geologic character/nature of the causative
subsurface features.
When gravity surveying, our objective is to: 1) measure
absolute or relative changes in the earth's gravitational
field; 2) isolate those variations attributable to small-scale
density changes within the earth; and 3) interpret the geologic
character/nature of the causative subsurface features.

Objectives
 Objectives
“Reduced” Gravity Profile
20
Δg ( gm – gΦ )

-20 isolated →
anomaly

surface

subsurface void

When gravity surveying, our objective is to: 1) measure

absolute or relative changes in the earth's gravitational field; 2)
isolate those variations attributable to small-scale density
changes within the earth; and 3) interpret the geologic
character/ nature of the causative subsurface features.
 Objectives

surface

subsurface void

When gravity surveying, our objective is to: 1) measure

absolute or relative changes in the earth's gravitational field;
2) isolate those variations attributable to small-scale density
changes within the earth; and 3) interpret the geologic
character/nature of the causative subsurface features.
 Objectives

So how do we:
1) measure absolute or relative changes in the
earth's gravitational field;
2) isolate those variations attributable to small-
scale density changes within the earth; and
3) interpret the geologic character/nature of the
causative subsurface features?
So how do we:
1) measure absolute or relative changes in the earth's
gravitational field;

2) isolate those variations attributable to small-

scale density changes within the earth; and
3) interpret the geologic character/ nature of the
causative subsurface features?
Measurement of absolute or relative
changes in the earth's gravitational field
Measurement of Gravity
Measurement of Gravity
Measurement of Gravity
Measurement of Gravity
The Automated Burris Gravity Meter™ with
UltraGrav™ Control System

Measurement of Gravity
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Measurement of
Gravity
CG-5 Autograv Gravity Meter
The Scintrex CG-5 maximizes
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positions are measured with
the integrated GPS capability.

Measurement of
SOME CG-5 FEATURES ARE: Gravity

• Internal GPS and precise clock for X-Y

positions and earth tide corrections
• External GPS input for Z-position and
altitude corrections
• Real time free air and Bouguer corrections
• Online near zone terrain corrections
 Measurement of
Gravity
AIR SEA GRAVITY SYSTEM II
• The Micro-g LaCoste Air Sea II is
the renowned S- meter based on
the LaCoste and Romberg time
tested Zero-Length Spring ™
sensor technology.
• The Air Sea II gives highly
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a ship
• The Air Sea II is the new
generation in dynamic gravity
meters
 Measurement of Gravity

So we now know that gravimeters can be used to

measure relative changes in the earth’s gravitational
field at multiple observation locations.
 Measurement of Gravity

If we “tie” these measurements to a station where the

“absolute” gravitational field of the earth is known, we can
calculate the absolute gravitational field of the earth at these
observation locations.
So how do we now:
1) measure absolute or relative changes in the
earth's gravitational field;
2) isolate those variations attributable to density changes
within the earth; and

3) interpret the geologic character/ nature of the

causative subsurface features?
 reduction

We isolate those variations attributable

to density changes within the earth by
applying a four-step process referred
to as “reduction”.
 reduction

excess mass = v x ∆
∆ = body – slab

Reduction is essentially the reverse of forward

modeling!
gobs = gtheoretical – gelevation + gmass – gterrain + gr
 reduction

Instead of
starting with a
geologic
model and
solving for
gobs, we start
with gobs and
solve for gr.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

 reduction

“Reduction” consists of four

steps:
1. Latitude correction (gtheoretical)
2. Free Air correction (gelevation)
3. Bouguer correction (gmass)
4. Topographic corrections (gterrain)

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

In step 1 (Latitude correction), the theoretical gravitational
field of the earth (@ MSL) is subtracted from all field data.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

In step 1 (Latitude correction), the theoretical gravitational
field of the earth (@ MSL) is subtracted from all field data.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

Latitudes (or relative latitudes) must be measured
with a high degree of precision (+ 1 ft) if small
targets are being imaged. Most geotechnical targets
are small!!
The Free Air correction (elevation; step 2) compensates for the
fact that the station is above sea level and not at sea level.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

The Free Air correction (elevation; step 2) compensates for the
fact that the station is above sea level.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

The Free Air correction (elevation; step 2) compensates for the
fact that the station is above sea level.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

Elevations (or relative elevations) must be measured
with a high degree of precision (+ 0.05 ft) if small
targets are being imaged.
The Bouger correction (mass; step 3) compensates for the fact
that a slab with density  is located between mean sea level
and the observation location.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

The Bouger correction (mass; step 3) compensates for the fact
that a slab with density  is located between mean sea level
and the observation location.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

If the density value is “off”, the baseline on the
output plot of gr will be non-zero. Usually, this
problem is readily identified and fixed by simply
increasing or decreasing the density of the slab.
The topographic correction (terrain; step 3) compensates for
the fact that the slab model is slightly inaccurate.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

The topographic correction (terrain; step 3) compensates for
the fact that the slab model is slightly inaccurate.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

The topographic correction (terrain; step 3) compensates for
the fact that the slab model is slightly inaccurate.

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

 If reduction is properly applied …..
gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain
… all we are left with is gravity anomaly associated with
the causative body of interest

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

….. all we are left with is gravity anomaly associated with
the causative body of interest

gr = gobs - gtheoretical + gelevation - gmass + gterrain

Gravity
Reduction
So how do we now:
1) measure absolute or relative changes in the
earth's gravitational field;
2) isolate those variations attributable to density changes within
the earth; and
3) interpret the geologic character/ nature of the causative
subsurface features?
 Simple-
shaped to
complex
residual
gravity
anomalies can
be inverted
(interpreted)
using
commercial
inversion
software.
The output is
a density
model of the
subsurface.
If densities
can be
transformed
into lithology,
a geologic
model can be
generated.
This is
often
plausible
because
density is a
function of
lithology!
 The main limitation of inversion software is that
assumptions have to be made about density
contrasts (or depths).

Gravity Modeling using

Numerical Integration
Techniques
If these assumptions are inaccurate, the output
density model will be inaccurate!
As will any
output
geologic
model!
 Remember –
the
interpretation
of
geophysical
data is
inherently
ambiguous –
unless it is
properly and
effectively
constrained.
In certain instances, post-acquisition processing is applied to
gravity data in order to “enhance” the gravity signature of the
causative body(s) of interest. This is often necessary when
gravity signatures are superposed.
In certain
instances, post-
acquisition
processing is
applied to gravity
data in order to
“enhance” the
gravity signature of
the causative
body(s) of interest.
This is often
necessary when
gravity signatures
are superposed.
Post-Acquisition Processing

There are several commonly used methods for

data enhancement and isolation. These include:
A) trend-surface analysis; B) wavelength filtering;
C) continuation filters; D) strike-sensitive filters;
and E) derivative filters. Method A is qualitative in
that it requires the interpreter to make empirical
decisions with respect to: "What is regional? What
is noise? What is desired signal?". Methods B
through E are digital filtering techniques. These
later processes remove much (but not all!) of the
human bias from data isolation and enhancement.
Trend surface analysis
Trend-surface
analysis can
also be done
quantitatively
by defining the
regional by a
"best-fit curve
or surface" of
desired order.
Wavelength filtering
Continuation filters. Continuation
filters project the anomaly to higher
elevations (upward continuation) or to
lower elevations (downward
continuation) and therefore effectively
serve as low-pass and high-pass
filters respectively.
Continuation filters
Examples of
continuation
filtering. Note
that one of the
advantages of
continuation
filters is that
the character
shape is
preserved and
can be
interpreted
quantitatively
and
qualitatively.
Strike-sensitive filters. Strike
sensitive filters are used to
selectively pass or reject
wavenumber components which
trend over a limited range of
directions.

One of the disadvantages of strike-

sensitive filters is that character shape
is not preserved. As a result the
residual gravity data cannot be
interpreted quantitatively, but only
qualitatively.
Derivative filters.
Derivative filters are a
powerful technique for
enhancing the higher
frequency components
of an anomaly field.
Both vertical and
horizontal derivatives
are readily computed
to focus upon the
anomalies of the
smaller and near-
surface anomalous
sources, and thus are
especially useful in
engineering and
environmental studies.
In the figure, the
derivative of the anomaly
associated with the
deeper source is seen to
be substantially less than
that associated with the
shallower source. Note
that one of the
disadvantages of
derivative filters is that
character shape is not
preserved. As a result the
residual gravity data
cannot be interpreted
quantitatively, but only
qualitatively.
Derivative filters
GRAVITY
Residual gravity anomalies are generally
interpreted quantitatively, and used to generate
model images of the causative subsurface
feature of interest.
The user must remember that the
interpretation of gravity data is non-unique!
Physical constraints (depth, density contrasts,
volume, etc.) are necessary to ensure the
output model images are reasonable.
Significant Applications

• Mapping air-filled cavities in karst terrain

• Mapping abandoned underground mines
• Estimating depth to bedrock
• Determining in-situ rock/soil densities
• Determining volume of organic material in
filled-in lakes or karst features
• Estimating tonnage of ore
• Determining volumes of available fill
Strengths
• Gravimeters respond to density variations
• Data can be acquired anywhere gravimeter can be placed and
survey data acquired
• Data can be interpreted quantitatively
• Model (depth, shape, size, density) of target can often be
generated
Limitations
•Gravimeters respond to density
variations – only!
•Very precise surveying control is
required so that elevation and latitude
corrections can be applied
•Gravity signatures are superposed!
•Inversions are non-unique!
•External constraints are required