Development Team

Principal Investigator Prof. Farhan J Ahmad

Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Dr. Javed Ali

Paper Coordinator
Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Content Writer Dr. Sanjula Baboota

JamiaHamdard, New Delhi

Content Reviewer Prof. Alka Ahuja

Oman Medical College, Muscat

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CONTENTS
 Skin
Skin functions
Anatomy and Physiology of skin
Skin related problems and skin disorders
Role of skin cleanser and moisturizer in dermatological disorders.
 Formulation of skin cleanser
 Formulation of skin moisturizer
 Summary

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Skin and its function

It is largest organ of the body not only in term of weight but in surface area also. In an average
adult, it covers approximately 2m2 area of the body and it represents 15% of the body weight. It
performs a wide variety functions including protective, regulatory and sensory. It acts as a barrier
and provides protection from harmful chemicals, mechanical impact, microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses) and radiations. It has a vast nerve network and consist of variety of receptors such as
receptors for touch, heat, cold and pain that enable it to perform sensory function. It regulates
body temperature by controlling blood flow and perspiration. Evaporation of sweat keeps the
skin surface cool in hot summer days. Moreover, sweat and skin lipid helps the skin to eliminate
a number of toxic metabolites produced in intestine and liver. In addition to it skin also act as a
site for synthesis of vitamin D which is an imperative substance for the body. However, these
functions of skin tend to vary with age, gender, race and individual. Caucasian skin has low light
protection ability as compared to Mongoloid or Negroid skin. Melanin is an endogenous
antioxidant which absorbs ultraviolet light and is more concentrated in Mongoloid or Negroid
skin and gives higher light protection ability. The physio-anatomical variations within the skin
structure leads to functional difference among the individual. Hence, to understand the skin
related problem, appearance of skin, and variation in skin function it is crucial to understand the
anatomy and physiology of skin.

Anatomy and Physiology of Skin

Skin has a very complex structure and it consists of fibrous, cellular, glandular components and
appendages. These components are arranged in such a way to make several different layers and
hence give skin a multi layered structure. A vast network of nerves, veins and capillaries are also
present inside this structure. A cross section of skin is showed in figure 1. It consists of three
layers namely epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Cellular components of skin comprises of mast
cells,keratinocytes,melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells.

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Figure 1: Structure of human skin

Epidermis

The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin and is composed of stratified, squamous epithelium.
It is relatively tough and thin as compared to dermis and hypodermis. It forms waterproof
covering over the body. It is mainly composed of dendritic cells andkeratinocytes. However,
majority of the cells are of keratinocytes. Epidermis can be divided into four sub-layers (Fig 2).
Keratinocytes of epidermis differentiate and are arranged into:
 cornified cell layer (stratum corneum)
 basal cells layer
 squamous cell layer, and
 granular cell layer
But epidermis of palm and sole consists of an additional sublayer called stratum lucidum. The
cells of stratum germinativum, stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum are living and
nucleated so cells of these layers of epidermis sometime are referred as stratum malpighii and
rete malpighii. The basal cells of the epidermis constantly proliferates. The cells of epidermis are
constantly in unsynchronized motion in which cells population pass one another and move
towards the surface of skin. This unsynchronized motion of cells make the epidermis as a
dynamic tissue.

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Figure 2: Sublayers of epidermis.

Sublayers of epidermis
Stratum corneum
It is the outermost layer of epidermis. It provides protection to underlying epidermis. It acts as a
barrier to prevent water loss and invasion of foreign substance. It is made of dead horny cells
called corneocytes. They are large, flat and polyhedral in shape. These cells are attached together
by corneodesmosomes which undergo proteolytic degradation during desquamation.Corneocytes
continually are exfoliated and constantly replaced with basal cells layer. They are rich in protein,
have low lipid content and are surrounded with extracellular lipid matrix. Filaggrin which is a
histidine rich protein aggregates keratin filaments to form the keratin bundles to provide rigidity
to corneocytes. In stratum corneum, filaggrin is degraded into a number of small hygroscopic
molecules such as urea, glutamic acid, pyrrolidone carboxylic acid and other amino acids. These
molecules form a hygroscopic pool referred as natural moisturizing factor (NMF) that keeps
stratum corneum pliable and soft .

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Stratum granulosum
This layer of epidermis contains living cells which are flattened and filled with keratohyaline
granules and hence it can also be termed as granular layer. Keratohyalinegranules are irregular
in size and shape and they are deeply basophilic. Cells of stratumgranulosum grow in orderly
vertical stacks. These cells help to synthesize and modify the proteins that are crucial to
keratinization. Stratum granulosum is a keratogenous layer of the epidermis. The lysosomal
enzymes are present at high levels as compared to stratum basalis and stratum spinosum. These
enzymes dissolve cellular organelles as the cells of this layer undergo terminal differentiation
process.
Stratum spinosum
Stratum spinosum is overlying layer of basal cell layer. It is 5–10 cells thick layer. This layer is
known as the squamous cell layer. It is composed of a variety of cells. These cells are different in
structure, shape and subcellular properties. Suprabasalspinous cells have a rounded nucleus and
they are polyhedral in shape, in contrast to the cells of the upper spinous layers which are
flattened, larger in size and contain lamellar granules. Lamellar granules contains a large
number of digestive enzyme and hence it can be referred as a type of lysosome. It delivers lipid
precursors into the intercellular space for stratum corneum.Spinous cells are bridged by
desmosomes. These mechanical coupling in cells of epidermis provide resistance to physical
stresses. In addition to it, gap junctions which are another type of connection between cells in
epidermis form an intercellular pore and allow cellular communication via chemical signals.
These signal play vital role in the regulation of various cell process such as cell metabolism, cell
growth, and cell differentiation.
Stratum germinativum
This layer of epidermis is made up of keratinocytes and the melanocytes. Keratinocytes are
elongated and column-shaped cells. Furthermore, basal cell contains oval or elongated dark
staining nuclei and melanin pigment which is transferred from adjacent melanocytes.

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Keratinocytes at the bottom of epidermisdifferentiate into single basal cell layerwhichis adhered
to dermis and squamous cells by desmosomal bridge. These cells are attached with basement
membrane in such a way that their long axis is perpendicular to dermis. The cells of this layer are
only the cells of epidermis that are mitotically active. They divide to give riseto the cells of
outer epidermal layers. However some basal cells are mitotically inactive and they donot have
potential to divide. The stem cells in basal cells layer of epidermis areclonogenic cells and they
have long lifespan because their cell proliferation process is very slow. There are certain
carcinogenic agents that may mutate cell proliferation process and hence affect the rate of
cellular division.
Basal cells migrate from bottom to outer layer. They become flattened and hydrated to form
tough and impermeable stratum corneum. In human the migration process (from basal cells to
cornified layer) takes 14 days and in another 14 days this cornified layer is transited to outermost
epidermis.
Cells of epidermis

Epidermis of skin is made up of two types of cells dendritic cells and keratinocytes (Fig 3).
Dendritic cells are also known as nonkeratinocytes cells of epidermis.

Epidermal cells

Dendritic cells / nonkeratinocytes Keratinocytes

Melanocytes

Merkel cells

Langerhans cells

Figure 3: Classification of cells of epidermis.

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Keratinocytes
They are dominate cells in epidermis that constitute 80% of epidermal cellular component. They
have intercellular bridges and cytoplasm which make them different from dendritic cells. They
differentiate and migrate from the basal layer to outermost layer of the epidermis. The process
of migration results in keratinization.
Keratinization process consistof two phase namely synthetic phase and degradative phase.In
synthetic phase keratinocytes build up keratin in cytoplasm to form bundle of keratin filaments.
These filaments terminate at the plasma membrane and form desmosomes that act as intercellular
attachment plate. In degradative phase keratinocytes loose their cellular organelles. Cellsloose
their nuclei and become dead. This process is known as terminal differentiation. The cellular
contents that are liberated in degradative phase are consolidated into mixture of filaments and
cells envelope and finally into corneocytes which form superficial layer of epidermis. The dead
keratinized cells of this layer arecontinuously replaced with new cells derived in basal cells
layer of epidermis.
Melanocytes
Melanocytes are dendritic cells derived from neural crest and produce a pigment called
melanin.They are found in skin, eye and hair but predominantly in basal cells layer of skin. The
branches or dendrites of melanocytes areextented in epidermis to transfer the melanin into
keratinocytes of superficial layer. Melanocytes contain melanosome which are round and
membrane bound organelle. Melanin is produced in this organelle. Melanin is an endogenous
pigment and plays vital role in skincolour variation, heat regulation and camouflage. In addition
to these roles it absorbs UV radiations and protect the skin from oxidative damage. The process
of production of melanin is called melanogenesis which is a series of biochemical reaction in
melanocytes. Melanogenesis is hormone stimulated, receptor mediated and enzyme catalyzed
process.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation stimulates melanogenesis which leads to increase in
melanosome to transfer the melanin to keratinocytes that leads to skin tanning.

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Human skin colour is varied from white to brown to dark. The variation in skin colour is due to
amount of melanin in skin cells. The production of melanosomes, degree of melanization, size of
melanosomes, dispersion of melanosomes in keratinocytes and rate of degradation of
melanosomes control the production of melanin. Fair skin individual has few and small sized
melanosomes, low degree of melanization, limited dispersion of melanosomes in keratinocytes
and rapid melanosomes degradation. However, it is opposite in dark skin individual.
Furthermore, melanosomes are aggregated to form complexes. These complexes are bounded to
membrane and they are cleaved more rapidly to liberate melanosomes in keratinocytes of dark
skin.
Merkel cells
Merkel cells are also referred to as touch cells and are found in the basal layer of epidermis,
digits, lips, regions of the oral cavityand hair follicle. They are oval nucleated receptor cells
derived from neural crest and are attached to keratinocytes by desmosomes.Merkel cells are
closely associated with expanded ends of somatosensory afferents to serve tactile function. They
may be assembled into specialized structure called touch domes or tactile disc that provide the
sensation to body for light and touch.Deformation of keratinocytes stimulate Merkel cells that
cause the release of chemical signal. These signal generate an action potential in afferent neuron.
The afferent neuron carries the signal to the brain. Moreover, Merkel cells are highly
concentrated in fingertips which makes them highly sensitive with higher tactile resolution.
Langerhans cells
These are dendritic cells and are derived from the bone marrow. They constitute 2–8% of the
epidermal cells. However, their number and distribution are maintained constant in the body.
Langerhans cells are found in granular, basal and squamous sublayers of epidermis. However
these cells are mainly concentrated in granular and squamous layers. In addition to it, these cells
are also found in squamous epithelia lining of oral cavity, vagina, esophagus and in lymphoid
organs.

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Langerhans cells represent as antigen-presenting immune cells and are involved in T-cell
mediated response. They have the ability to recognize and process soluble antigens found in
epidermal tissue. Langerhans cells ingest the antigen via endocytosis and form cell granules. The
contents of these granules are delivered to phagolysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes and
phagolysosomes act in same way as macrophages.
Epidermal appendages
Apocrine glands, sweat glands,pilosebaceous units, hair follicles, nail and ducts are considered as
ectodermally derived epidermal appendages because they originate as downgrowths from the
epidermis. They have capability to reepithelialize after injury. Face and scalp reepithelialize
more rapidly because these areas contain abundant pilosebaceous units. Sweat Glandsare of three
types which are eccrine, apocrine and apoeccrine sweat gland. Eccrine sweat glands control the
heat. Apocrine sweat glands are involved in scent release and are confined mainly in axillae and
perineum.
Dermis
It is an integrated structure and is composed of filamentous, fibrous and connective tissue. It
contains a network of nerves and blood vessels. It accommodates epidermal appendages,
fibroblasts and cellular components such as macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, leucocytes
and other plasma cells. The constituents of dermis except nerve are mesodermal in origin
whereas nerves are derived from the neural crest.
Dermis gives elasticity and tensile strength to epidermis of the skin. It offers a wide variety of
functions including protection from mechanical injury, water retention, thermal regulation and
sensation. It interacts with epidermal layer of skin to maintain the properties of both tissues and
helps in repairing and remodeling of the skin after wound healing. It does not undergo an
obvious differentiation.
.Hypodermis
It is lowermost fatty layer of skin that develops from lipocytes as lobules. These lobules are separated by

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septa which is made of fibrous tissue. In addition tofattytissue,hypodermis also contains collagen, elastic
fibers, large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, hair follicle roots, the glandular part of glands, Panicinian
corpuscles and panniculuscarnosus (muscular layer). Panniculusadiposusis another anatomical term for
hypodermis. It varies in thickness and acts as storehouse of energy. It helps to insulate body in low
temperature environment. Moreover, it is considered an endocrine organ because lipocytes produce leptin
hormone that acts as messenger to regulate body weight through hypothalamus. It also acts as a site for
conversion of some hormones for example aromatase enzyme in panniculus converts androstenedione
into estrone.
Skin conditions and skin disorders
Skin is a vital organ of body and despite of its crucial functions it holds importance in self image
and idea of beauty. Therefore perfect skin is dream of most of the peoples in the world. Good
skin care habits can help to maintain a firm, smooth and healthy skin. Unhealthy and damaged
skin may result in various skin problems and disorders such as acne, rashes, hives , eczema,
skin cancer, rosacea, seborrheic dermatitis etc. They can be temporary or permanent, treatable or
incurable, situational or genetic and painless or agonizing. Some most of the common skin
disorders and skin conditions arediscussed below.
Skin cancer
Skin cancer is carcinomas of dermal tissue. It is of two types melanoma skin cancer (MSC) and
nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC). The later one is further divided into basal cells carcinoma
(BCC) and squamous cells carcinoma (SCC). Both BCC and SCC are most common and have
low mortality than MSC. NMSC’s is caused by sunburn. The chronic exposure of visible areas of
the body such as face, head, neck to UV radiation lead to sunburn. UVA and UVB rays which
are components of UV radiation penetrates into the skin and triggers the release of
proinflammatory cytokines that damage skin cells.
There are many risk factors that contribute in sunburn and hence in skin cancer. These factors
include geographic location, skin color and certain medications. Nonmelanoma skin cancer are

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the most common in fair skinned population because caucasian population have few and small
sized melanosomes and hence have low degree of melanization.
Acne
In this condition, sebaceous glands is overactive. Overactive sebaceous glands produce excess oil
and hence follicles become plugged. Plugged follicles can be inflamed and result in pimples,
nodules and cysts. However acne is not harmful to health and it can be treated with drugs such
as salicylic acid and benzoyl peroxide. These medicines are prescribed in the form of gels,
creams and lotions to apply on inflamed skin. Sometime moderate to severe acne can leave scars
on skin that can be eliminated or reduced using cosmetic preparations.
Rosacea
Rosacea is a type of sensitive skin and it can be characterized by facial redness, flushing,
stinging, burning, inflammatory papules, pruritus and swelling. It is a facial skin problem and
affects individuals of all ages. However, it is most common in Caucasians and women of ages in
between 30 and 50 years. The redness usually occurs around the cheeks, nose and forehead. The
cause of rasacea is unknown. Exposure to extreme temperature, severe sunburn, anxiety, stress
and certain medications trigger the flushing of skin.
Eczema
Atopic dermatitisis often called eczemais characterized by appearance of blisters. Red and itchy
rashes appear all over the body. However, rashes can vary from person to person and it may be
mild, moderate, or severe.
In eczema, skin becomes dry and sensitive. Intense itching in rashes enforces the sufferer to
scratch. However, scratching of rashes causes oozing of fluid which can make the condition
more worse. It may also be consequenceof allergic contact dermatitis, irritant dermatitis and
fungal infection. Eczema cannot be cured but can be managed with topical medicinal and
cosmetics formulations.
Wrinkles and skin ageing

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Skin ageing is a natural process that leads to appearance of wrinkles and lines on the skin.
However, exposure to sunlight and pollutants and extreme dieting can also lead to wrinkles,
splotches, age spots, pigmentation, dull colour and rough skin texture thereby making skin look
older than it is. It is most common facial problem for women and men. It can be slowed or
retarded using antiageing skin care cosmetics.
Hyperpimentation
Hyperpigmentation refers to age spots that appear as brownish patches on the skin. It may be due
to ageing or as a result of acne. These patches usually appear on face, hands, feet or neck as large
freckles and hence sometime it is referred as liver spots. Furthermore, sun damage or genetic
factors can worsen the condition. Hyperpigmentation is not harmful to health but people wish to
remove them for cosmetic purpose.
Causes of skin problem
Skin related problems can occur because of several factors like age, exposure to environmental
elements and other factors such as microbial infection (bacterial infections, viral infections,
fungal infection, parasitic infections), genetic factors, contact with allergens , weak immunity,
illness of other body organs, stress, hormonal changes, diet and life style. However, the causes
of some skin conditions are not known.
Symptoms of skin problems and treatment approaches
The skin problems are varied in symptoms and severity. They can be characterized by wide
range of symptoms. Some common symptoms of skin diseases include
 Raised bumps which may be red or white in colour.
 Rashes on the skin. These rashes may be with or without itch or pain.
 Scaly or chafing or peeling or dry or cracked skin
 Discolor patches
 Sore and lesions
 Flushed skin
 Warts

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There are many skin related problems that are treated with topical or oral or subcutaneous
treatments and it includes antibiotics, medicated makeup, steroids, vitamins, other targeted
medicines, food supplements, cosmoceutical preparations and laser therapy. Some cosmetics
formulations such as moisturizing, cleansing preparations and protectant formulations are also
prescribed as adjuvant therapy.
Role of skin cleanser and moisturizer in dermatological disorders.
Skin cleanser and moisturizer improvesskin health and appearance whereas sunscreen protects
the skin from sunburn and oxidative damage. Now a days these preparation have become part of
treatment of dermatological disorders. They are used as adjuvant treatment in acne, rosacea,
atopic dermatitis, photoaging and sensitive skin.
Atopic dermatitis and skin care regimen
Atopic dermatitis (AD) develops as a result of environmental, immunologic, genetic, and
pharmacologic factors. However, certain factors such as irritants, microorganisms, aeroallergens,
and seasonal changes may aggravate the disease. Although dermatologists suggest that the skin
of atopic dermatitis sufferer should be routinely cleaned but cleaning with normal alkali
soapsmay reduce the stratum corneum cell layer and damage it that could result in infection with
gram-positive bacteria. Therefore, synthetic washing bars are a good choice for cleansing in
these condition.
Acne vulgaris and skin care regimen
It is the most common skin related problem and it can be treated with salicylic acid and benzoyl
peroxide. These official drugs are prescribed in the form of gels, creams and lotions to apply on
inflamed skin. In addition to acne treatment, cleansers, moisturizers, astringents and exfoliants
are also prescribed for adjuvant effects. Skin cleanser is used in acne or acne prone skin to
remove surface dirt, sweat, and excessive skin lipids. Dryness and irritation are major side
effects of antiacne therapy. A nonionic, fragrance-free bar or liquid cleanser with good
rinsability along with a moisturizer is preferred in acne. Astringent removes alkaline soap scum

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and oily residue from skin. Exfoliants accelerate exfolitation of stratum corneum and promotes
cornedolysis.
Rosacea and skin care regimen
Rosacea is a type of sensitive skin and it can be characterized by facial flushing, stinging,
burning, inflammatory papules and pruritus. As rosacea is a subset of sensitive skin so selection
of appropriate cosmetic product is a challenge to dermatologists. However, facial sting test can
be useful to find out best cosmetic products for rosacea patients.
Facial cleansers and moisturizers are used in rosacea because they accelerate the healing of
damaged skin.Skin cleansers containing alcohol, astringents, and abrasives can cause severe
irritation. A very mild cleansing agents are more beneficiary in this condition. The various
medicated skin cleanser that contain therapeutically active agent are available in market.
Facial cleansers remove debris, excess sebum, microorganisms and desquamating corneocytes
without damaging skin barrier where as moisturizer in the formulation heal the damaged skin by
enhancing the water content in tissue and reducing the transepidermal water loss.
Sunburn and skin care regimen
Chronic exposure to sunlight damages the skin, and cause premature aging and skin cancer. UV
radiation of sun light penetrates into the skin and triggers the release of cytokines that damage
skin cells. The damaged skin ischaracterized by swelling, redness, tightness and pain.
There are many risk factors that contribute in sunburn. These factors include geographic
location, skin color, certain medications and skin care products (particularly phototoxic herbal
extract based). St. John's wort, benzoyl peroxide, glycolic or lactic acids, lavender oil, Rosemary
oil, sandalwood oil, and some fragrance (such as lemon, lime, grapefruit, and bergamot) are
some examples of skin care ingredients that can make the skin sensitive to sunlight. Moisturizer
with UV filter is advised by dermatologist to person who have photosensitive skin. Lipid free
cleansing agents also can help in reducing the severity of symptoms associated with photoaged
skin.

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Sunscreen and suntan products are applied topically on the open skin to protect it from sunburn.
Sunscreen products contain ingredients that reflect, absorb and scatter the UV radiation.
Furthermore, suntans contain approved colour additives such as dihydroxyacetone (DHA) and
bronzers to impart temporary colour (tanning) without exposing to UV light (UV tanning).
Xeroticskin and skin care regimen
It is seen in geriatric population and is a severe dermatological disorder. In the geriatric
population production of sebum is decreased. Furthermore, low humidity and wind may also
worsen the condition. Moisturizer containing emollients, humectants, or keratin-softening agents
are useful to manage it. Moisturizer rehydrate and soften dry skin. Ideally cleanser causing skin
dryness should be avoided.
Eczema and skin care regimen
Eczema is characterized by appearance of blisters. These blisters can be thicken plaques of skin
or thick crust or weeping and oozing skin. This inflammation of skin can be consequences of
other skin related problems such as dermatitis, fungal infection etc. In addition to topical
treatments of eczema, dermatologists prescribe skin moisturizers. Moisturizers prevent many
types of eczema by keeping the skin moist through following mechanisms:
 By promoting the synthesis of intercellular lipids.
 By alteration in surface cutaneous moisture partition coefficient.
 By promoting the onset of dermal-epidrmal moisture diffusion.
 By initiating the repairing of stratum corneum
Skin aging and skin care regimen
Skin aging is a natural process that leads to appearance of wrinkles,age spots, pigmentation, dull
colour and rough skin texture However certain factors such as sun light exposure, pollutants, etc
can accelerate this process. Several cosmetic preparations such as creams, gels, lotions and face
packs are marketed under various brand names as antiagingskin care products. These products
contains moisturizers, cleansers, toners, antioxidants and supplement foods. They slow down
aging process and improve skin condition.

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Formulation of cleansers and moisturizers

Skin Cleansers
Skin cleansers are the preparations containing surface-active substances. They are used to
remove dirt, sebum, microorganisms and exfoliated corneum cells. Skin cleanser lowers the
interfacial tension on skin and removes adhered particles in emulsified form without irritating or
disrupting the skin’s protective barrier. Dermatological skin cleansers are being prescribed by
dermatologist to treat various skin related problems. They are used as adjuvant therapy because
they prepare the skin to receive medications and hence improves drug absorption (Fig 4).
Moreover, routine cleansing may decrease the risk of microbial infection. An ideal skin cleanser
should be able to remove dirt, sebum, microorganisms and exfoliated corneum cells without
damaging or disrupting the skin barrier. It should not be irritating, non-comedogenic, non-
acnegenic and non-allergenic.

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Stratum
corneumcontaining
surface dirt, sweat

Cleaning of skin with

cleanser and rinse with
water

Cleanser
removes dirt, oil, cells, etc from
skin surface as well as deep
tissue

Figure 4 Role of skin cleanser

Components of skin cleanser

Water has good cleansing power. It alone can remove about 65% of dirt and oil from skin
surface.Soaps can be used as surfactant to remove oils and environmental insults that cannot be
removed with water alone. Soap disrupts moisture skin barrier and affects the skin surface.
Therefore in addition to water and surfactant the skin cleansers also contain following
ingredients:
Table 1: Components of skin cleansers
Ingredients Role
Surfactants To emulsify the debris
Preservatives Prevent the growth of microorganisms

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Moisturizers Hydrate the skin and maintain its barrier integrity

Fillers Harden bar soaps and cleansers
Lather enhancers Provide foam
Fragrance Mask the odour mostly of surfactants
Dyes or pigments Impart color

Adverse effects of skin cleanser

Harsh skin cleanser such as soap bar and detergents are known to cause after wash tightness, skin
dryness, skin irritation, skin scaling, roughness and allergic contact dermatitis. Skin irritation is
due to damage to skin barrier whereas dermatitis is due to presence of fragrance, preservative or
dye. Surfactants such as sodium tallowate, sodium lauryl sulphate and sodium stearate disrupt or
disturb the moisture skin barrier and alter the pH of skin (pH 5.3-5.9). An increase in pH leads
to transepidermal water loss which causes skin dryness. Furthermore, an increase in pH may also
cause microbial infection in skin.
Preservatives are required to prevent the microbial growth especially in liquid formulations.
Preservatives such as parabens, diazolidinyl urea, Quaternium-15 and DMDM hydantoin cause
irritant or allergic contact dermatitis.
Types of Cleansers
There are various types of skin cleansers which are varied in surfactant composition. Table 2
describe different types of skin cleansers.
Table 2: Different types of skin cleansers
S No Cleanser Remark
1 Soap They consist of anionic surfactants and cause drying and
irritation to skin. Moreover, these increase pH of skin.
2 Superfatted soap and They also consist of anionic surfactants.
beauty bars

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3 Dermatologic They are composed of amphoteric, anionic, and non-ionic

bars/cakes surfactants.

4 Cosmetic liquid They are consist of anionic, non-ionic, amphoteric and silicone
cleansers surfactants.
They can be mild and less irritating to skin.
They have pH similar to skin and have high rinsibility factor.
They have emollients and humectants added to them
5 Antiseptic and They consist of anionic, amphoteric and non-ionic surfactants.
antibacterial washes They may help control bacteria, not believed to penetrate
follicle.
Potentially less irritating and drying than topical bactericide

Example of face cleanser

S No. Ingredient Qty. (%w/w) Use
1 Deionized Water 70.08 Solvent
2. Carbopol 0.80 Rheology Modifier
3. Glycerin 5.00 Humectant
4. Sodium Hydroxide (20% 0.20 Neutralizer
Solution)
5. Disodium Cocoyl Glutamate 5.15 Surfactant
(25% active)

6. Coco-Glucoside (52% active) 2.9 Surfactant

7. Sodium Cocoamphoacetate 9.60 Surfactant

(29% active)
8. Phenoxyethanol 0.50 Preservative

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9. Sodium Benzoate (25%) 1.2 Preservative

10. Citric Acid (50%) 0.55 Acidifier

11. Polyglyceryl-3 Laurate 2.00 Moisturizer

12. Butylene Glycol (and) Citric 2.00 Active
Acid (and) Acetyl Hexapeptide-
46
13. Hydrated Silica 0.2 Scrub

Procedure:
1 Prepare the dispersion of carbopol in adequate quantity of water.
2. Add glycerin and mix well
3. Dissolve sodium hydroxide and add to carbopol dispersion
4. Add ingredients 6-9 and mix well
5. Add citric acid and mix well and then add ingredients 11-13.
Evaluation of skin cleanser
Beside the foam forming test, ease of application, pH, heavy metals content and microbiological
testing of cleanser, the skin cleansers are also evaluated for skin reaction and irritation.
Forearm wash test
The left forearm is liberally wetted with running water having 6-8 grain hardness and
temperature 90-100◦F. Then soap bar under test and a non woven paper towel is wetted. The bar
is then rubbed on the towel and the lathered towel is then rubbed on the assigned surface of the
forearm with moderate pressure for a total of ten seconds. The towel is discarded and lather is
allowed to remain on the skin for an additional ninety seconds and then it is rinsed thoroughly
for fifteen seconds. The forearm is dried with paper towel and then the entire procedure is
repeated with right forearm.
The visual, tactile and sensory assessments are carried out for softness, dryness, flaking, itching,
clean feel, and mildness of the test product. Seven point scale shown in Table 3 is used to assign

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grades for redness, dryness and smoothness. The lower grade indicates better skin condition.
Study is discontinued if a grade 5 or above for both dryness and redness is observed in any
subjects during study. Transepidermal water loss is determined using single-probe evaporimeter
to assess skin dryness.
Table: 3 Forearm grading scale
Parameter Grading
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Skin Very high Extreme Substantial Moderate Slight Barely No
smoothness smoothness/ smoothness smoothness smoothness smoothness detectable smoothness
slick smoothness
Redness No redness Barely Slight Moderate Substantial Extreme Severe
detectable redness redness or heavy redness redness
smoothness redness
Dryness No dryness Patches of Slight Moderate Heavy Heavy Severe
slight powderines powderiness powderiness cracking cracking and
powderiness s and and heavy and heavy and lifting bleeding
lifting scale cracking cracking scale

Moisturizers
Dryness or damage or disruption to skin barrier leads to rapid transepidermal water loss and
inflammation (Fig 5). Moisturizers prevent or reduce water evaporation, draw moisture from
dermis and thereby alleviate dryness. They maintain skin barrier integrity and prevent skin
irritation. They fill space between skin flakes and make it smooth and soft. They protect sensitive
skin and improve skin texture and tone. They also mask imperfections. Therefore dermatologists
recommend use of moisturizer as adjuvant treatment in various skin related problems.

Healthy human skin SC Barrier Impairment

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Epidermal
barrier
is maintained
Irritants entering skin
by “mortar”
without SC barrier
between
“bricks”

Moisture escaping
skin without SC
barrier

Figure: 5 Brick wall analogy of stratum corneum barrier

Types of moisturizer
Moisturizers have three properties including humectants, occlusive and emollient effects.
Occlusive moisturizers physically block transepidermal water loss (TEWL). They form a
hydrophobic film on the skin surface as well as within the superficial interstitium between
corneocytes. Humectants attract water from the dermis to epidermis keep skin soft and smooth.
Emollients fill space between skin flakes and make the skin smooth. Furthermore some
moisturizers are rejuvenators and ceramide dominate that rejuvenate skin and replaces ceramides
deficient in skin barrier respectively. Various types of moisturizers with their examples are
tabulated in Table 4.
Table: 4 Various types of moisturizer
S.No Moisturizer Example Mechanism Remark
1 Occlusive Petrolatum , Lanolin It physically blocks Some cause
Mineral Oil, Zinc oxide water loss folliculitis and
pimples

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2 Humectants Glycerin, Sorbitol Draw up the water Some may cause

Urea, Alpha-hydroxy from deeper layer to irritation
acids, Sugars epidermis.

3 Emollients Cholesterol, Squalene , Fill the space between Not always

Fatty acids the flakes effective
4 Rejuvenators Collagen , Keratin, Rejuvenate the skin by Shows adjuvant
Elastin replenishing essential effect only
amino acids
5 Ceramide- Ceramides, Cholesterol, Replace ceramide Shows adjuvant
Dominate Fatty acids deficient in skin barrier effect only

Example of moisturizer

S No. Ingredient Qty. (%w/w) Use

Part-A
1 Deionized Water 73.65 Solvent
2. Phenoxyethanol 0.50 Preservative
3. Glycerin 3.00 Humectant
4. Butylene Glycol 3.00 Humectant

Part –B

5. Isopropyl Isostearate 5.0 Emollient

6. Neopentyl Glycol 3.00 Emollient

Diethylhexanoate,
7. Dimethicone, 2.00 Emollient

8. Stearic Acid 0.2 Emollient

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9. PEG-20 Methyl Glucose 0.2 Emollient

Sesquistearate

10. Methyl Glucose Sesquistearate 0.2 Emollient

Part- C

11. Acrylates/Beheneth-25 2.00 Rheology modifier

Methacrylate Copolymer,
Part-D
12. Sodium Hydroxide (20% 0.35 Neutralizer
Solution)

Procedure:
1 In a vessel heat the ingredients of part A to 65-70 ◦C.
2. In a separate vessel melt the ingredients of part B at 65-70 ◦C.
3. Mix part-A and part-B at 65-70 ◦C and homogenize for 3min and then cool
4. Add copolymer and mix well.
5. Add sodium hydroxide to neutralize the mixture.
Evaluation of moisturizers
Determination of the pH
pH of the moisturizer formulations are measured using pH meter.
Homogeneity
Homogeneity of the moisturizer formulations is checked by visual test and formulation is ranked
as follows
Excellent (+++)
Very Good (++)
Good (+)
Poor(-)

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Consistency
Consistency of the moisturizer is determined by dropping the cone attached with holding road
from a fixed distance of 10 cm. The distance travelled by cone is noted after 10sec.
Viscosity
Viscosity of moisturizer formulation is determined using Brookfield viscometer. The spindle is
allowedtorotate at 2.5 rpm. Samples of formulation is allowed to settle over 30 min at the
temperature of test (25 ± 1oC) before the measurement are taken.
Spreadability
Spreadability of the formulation is performed by applying the product on the skin and noticing
whether spreading is good or not. It is ranked as follows:
+++ = Excellent, ++ = Very Good, + = Good and - = Poor
Summary
Skin is a vital organ of our body. It plays crucial roles including protection, sensation, regulation.
It also synthesizes various chemical substances which are essential for our body development
and functioning. It is multi layers structure and consists of epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.
Daily cure of skin keeps it smooth and healthy. Factors not limited to these such as age, genetic,
disease, life style, certain medicines, exposure to chemicals and radiations and toxin can affect
the skin and lead to development of various skin disorders and skin problems. Some most
common skin related problems are acne, ageing, sunburn, dermatitis, eczemia and skin cancer.
Various cosmetics products such as skin cleansers, moisturizers, skin protectant and skin nourish
products are being prescribed by dermatologist along with primary treatment. These products are
used as adjuvant that accelerate recovery of skin from ill condition and rejuvenate it. However
selection of these products is still challenged for dermatologist because some ingredients that
may be present in cosmetics formulation may irritate skin and hence cause another skin problem.
Further, knowledge of skin anatomy, physiopathology, skin problem and its cause along with
composition of cosmetics to pharmacists or dermatologist helps in selection of appropriate
cosmetic product as per the skin type and its condition.

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