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Solution Manual for Human Anatomy 5th Edition

Saladin 0073403709 9780073403700
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Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Chapter Overview
The skin (integument) is the main organ of the integumentary system, and forms
the boundary between ourselves and the external environment. The largest organ of the
body, the skin provides a canvas for cultural and individual expression as well as clues
about state of health. The integumentary system comprises the skin and accessory
structures—hair, nails, and cutaneous glands.
The skin is layered. The surface layer, the epidermis, is stratified squamous
epithelium that lies on top of the dermis, a connective tissue layer. The hypodermis is not
technically part of the skin but is studied along with it.
Thickness of the skin varies in different regions. In most areas it is 1 to 2 mm
thick but may be as thick as 6 mm between the shoulder blades. Most of the difference in
thickness is due to variation in the dermis. The terms thick and thin skin refer to the
epidermis. Thin skin is found over most of the body. “Thick” skin is found in palms and
soles of the feet.
The skin has several important functions. It acts as a barrier that excludes
infectious organisms and therefore is a major defense against infection. The epidermis
also is an effective barrier to water and serves to preserve optimal fluid balance in the
body. Vitamin D synthesis begins in the skin. Extensive nerve endings, particularly in
regions such as the fingertips, enable us to gather information about our environment
through the sense of touch. Blood vessels in the dermis play a role in thermoregulation;
they dilate in response to heat and constrict in the cold. Finally, muscles of facial
expression insert directly on collagen fibers in the skin of the face. Movement of the skin
sends powerful nonverbal messages that play a key role in human communication.
The epidermis consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It is
avascular and depends on diffusion of nutrients from the underlying dermis. Nerve
endings in the epidermis respond to touch and pain but most sensations related to the skin
are associated with nerve endings in the dermis.
Cells of the epidermis are varied.
 Stem Cells
Cells in the deepest layers undergo mitosis and give rise to keratinocytes.
 Keratinocytes
The majority of cells in the epidermis are keratinocytes, so named because they
synthesize the protein keratin.
 Melanocytes

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Melanocytes synthesize the pigment melanin that accumulates in the keratinocytes,

shielding the DNA from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Varying amounts of melanin
underlie population differences in skin color.
 Tactile (Merkel) Cells
Receptors for touch are found in the basal layer of the epidermis and are associated
with a nerve fiber in the dermis.
 Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells
These macrophages migrate to the epidermis and guard against microbes and toxins
that penetrate the skin.

The layers of the epidermis are discussed in order from bottom to top.
 Stratum basale
This deepest layer consists of stem cells that undergo mitosis and give rise to young
keratinocytes. The keratinocytes eventually rise to the surface and replace dead cells.
Scattered throughout are melanocytes and tactile cells.
 Stratum spinosum
As the keratinocytes move upward they produce more keratin and the cells become
flatter.
 Stratum granulosum
The flat keratinocytes contain keratohyalin granules.
 Stratum lucidum
This thin, translucent zone is seen only in thick skin. The cells no longer have nuclei
or organelles.
 Stratum corneum
The surface layer contains dead, scaly, keratinized cells that form a tough coating.

Dead keratinocytes at the skin’s surface are constantly eroded and have to be
replaced by cells moving up from deeper layers. Most cells originate in the stratum basale
where stem cells undergo mitosis. Cells cease dividing as they move away from the
blood vessels of the dermis that supply oxygen and nutrients. New keratinocytes push
the older ones further up the layers. Over a period of 30–40 days a keratinocyte makes its
way up and then is flaked off.
Dramatic changes occur in the transformation from young cuboidal cells to scaly,
dead, cornified ones. In the stratum granulosum the keratinocytes undergo apoptosis, the
keratohyalin granules release a substance that converts the intermediate filaments of the
cytoskeleton to keratin, and membrane-coating vesicles release a lipid mixture that water-
proofs the cell surface. Thus, the stratum corneum consists of dead keratinocytes and
keratinocyte fragments that constantly slough off and float in the air around us.
The dermis is a complex landscape that contains a variety of structures. It is
connective tissue and has abundant blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and
nerve endings. The boundary between the dermis and epidermis is distinct and looks
wavy under the microscope. The upward waves represent the dermal papillae, while the
downward waves are epidermal ridges. The arrangement locks the epidermis to the
dermis. On the fingertips, distinct friction ridges caused by dermal papillae form the
unique fingerprints of each individual.

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The two zones of the dermis are the papillary layer and the reticular layer. The
thin papillary layer consists of areolar tissue that allows mobile leukocytes to provide
defense against microbes. The thicker and deeper reticular layer is composed of dense
irregular connective tissue. The collagen in the reticular layer forms thick bundles that
provide strength.
The hypodermis binds skin to underlying tissue and has more areolar and adipose
tissue than the dermis. There are sex differences in the distribution and amount of
subcutaneous adipose tissue, much to the chagrin of many women.
Variation in skin color is due to melanin that accumulates in the stratum basale
and stratum spinosum. The two forms of melanin are eumelanin and pheomelanin.
While all people have about the same number of melanocytes, the quantity of melanin
varies. Darker skin results from increased production of melanin, slower break-down of
melanin in keratinocytes, and wider distribution of melanized cells from the stratum
basale to the stratum corneum. Darker skin is an adaptation to exposure to ultra-violet
radiation. People whose ancestors lived nearer the equator have darker skin to protect
from degradation of folic acid, a B vitamin necessary for normal cell division and fetal
development. In contrast, as ancient populations migrated to temperate climates, over
time skin color lightened because penetration of UV rays is necessary for Vitamin D
production. Thus, skin color is a compromise between folic acid and Vitamin D
requirements.
Other factors besides melanin also influence skin color. For example, hemoglobin
in blood vessels in the dermis give skin a reddish or pink tinge. Areas like the lips where
the blood vessels are close to the surface are pink or red. Carotene is a yellow pigment
that becomes concentrated in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous fat.
Abnormal color indicates certain conditions. For example, blueness of the skin
resulting from lack of oxygen is cyanosis, whereas erythema is abnormal redness that
may be caused by sunburn or embarrassment. Jaundice, yellowing of the skin and
eyeballs, is associated with inability of the liver to dispose of bilirubin, a breakdown
product of hemoglobin. Albinism is a hereditary condition caused by absence of the gene
necessary for synthesis of melanin. Lack of melanin results in pink eyes and white-blond
hair.
Hair, nails, and cutaneous glands are accessory organs to the skin. Hair is found
almost everywhere on the body. Humans have about the same number of hair follicles as
apes but the differences in apparent hairiness are due to texture and pigmentation. Hair
changes throughout life. The fetus is covered by fine, downy, unpigmented lanugo. By
birth it is replaced by vellus which is also fine and unpigmented. Terminal hair is longer,
coarser, and pigmented. It forms the hair on the scalp, the lashes, eyebrows, and, after
puberty, axillary and genital hair, and male facial hair.
The main function of hair in mammals is to conserve body heat. For humans, this
function has mostly been lost, except for the hair on the scalp. Guard hairs such as the
eyelashes and nose hair function to exclude debris. Pubic and axillary hairs enhance the
effect of secretions from associated apocrine scent glands.
The hair has three zones, the bulb, the root, and the shaft. The bulb is a swelling
in the dermis at the base of the hair, the root is the remainder of the hair in the follicle,
and the shaft is the portion above the skin surface. A cross-section of the hair reveals an
inner medulla that forms a core of loosely arranged cells and air spaces. Surrounding the

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medulla is the cortex, a layer of keratinized cells, and on the outside is the cuticle, a layer
of scaly cells.
The follicle consists of an epithelial root sheath and a connective tissue root
sheath. Associated with the follicle are nerve and muscle fibers. The piloerector muscle
(also known as pilomotor muscle or arrector pili) associated with each hair is a bundle of
smooth muscle cells that extends from the dermal collagen fibers to the connective root
sheath of the follicle. Piloerector muscles are stimulated by the sympathetic nervous
system in response to cold or intense emotions such as fear. Other mammals look larger
and scarier when their fur is raised but in humans goose bumps are not particularly
impressive.
Texture of hair is related to differences in cross-sectional shape, for example,
straight hair is round, wavy hair is oval, and curly hair is relatively flat. Color is due to
pigment granules in the cells of the cortex. Brown and black hair are rich in eumelanin,
while red hair has less eumelanin and a higher concentration of pheomelanin. Blond hair
has little eumelanin and intermediate amounts of pheomelanin. In gray or white hair
there is an absence of melanin in the cortex and more air in the medulla.
Hair grows in cyclical fashion. The three phases are anagen, catagen, and
telogen. During anagen stem cells undergo mitosis and the hair grows about 1 mm per 3
days. During catagen, mitosis ceases, and the base of the hair keratinizes, forming a club
hair that is not well-anchored and can easily fall out. The telogen phase is a period of rest
before anagen begins again. Hair grows more slowly after people reach their 40s, and
hair becomes thinner, sometimes to the point of alopecia (baldness).
Nails are another accessory structure. Most mammals have claws but primates
have flat nails. The nails provide support for fleshy, tactile pads that are good at
gripping. Nails also are used as tools for grooming, digging, and fine manipulation of the
environment.
Finger and toenails are derivatives of the stratum corneum and consist of dead
cells filled with parallel layers of hard keratin. The nail matrix at the proximal edge of
the nail is the growth zone. The nail plate is the visible portion of the nail that covers the
tip of the finger or toe.
Cutaneous glands include the following types: merocrine, apocrine, sebaceous,
ceruminous, and mammary. Apocrine sweat glands are found in the genital region, anal
region, axilla, and areola, and, in mature men, in the beard area. They release a thick,
milky secretion by the process of exocytosis. The ducts open to hair follicles; the hair
functions to enhance the aromatic secretion. Apocrine sweat glands are scent glands that
become active at puberty and release pheromones in response to sexual arousal or stress.
The secretions have subtle effects on the behavior and physiology of other people.
Merocrine (eccrine) glands produce perspiration, a watery secretion that cools the
body. Each merocrine gland is tubular and leads to an undulating coiled duct leading to a
sweat pore on the surface of the skin. Myoepithelial cells deep in the gland contract in
response to sympathetic nervous stimuli and squeeze sweat through the duct.
Sebaceous glands usually open to a follicle and produce sebum that keeps hair
from becoming dry and brittle. They are holocrine, thus cytoplasm is lost with the
secretion. Cells are replaced through mitosis.
Ceruminous glands in the external auditory canal produce a secretion that
combines with sebum and dead epidermal cells to waterproof the canal and kill bacteria.

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Mammary glands are modified apocrine sweat glands that produce rich milk
through ducts to the nipple. They develop during pregnancy and lactation.
The integumentary system changes through life. Prenatally, the epidermis
develops from embryonic ectoderm while the dermis derives from mesoderm. By week 4
the ectodermal cells have divided to two layers, the periderm and basal layer. Part of the
basal layer becomes the germinating layer where stem cells give rise to new keratinocytes
throughout life. By week 21 the stratum corneum has developed as the outer skin layer.
Hair follicles begin as collections of ectodermal cells that push into the dermis
and expand to hair bulbs. A papilla from the dermis pushes into the hair bulb.
Ectodermal cells overlying the papilla form a germinal matrix where mitotically active
cells produce the hair shaft. At birth there are approximately 5 million follicles and no
additional ones form.
Nails begin as epidermal thickenings on the ventral surface of the fingers and
migrate to the dorsal surface to form the primary nail field. Nail folds form in the
margins. In the proximal nail fold the germinal layer becomes the nail root where cells
undergo mitosis to produce kertatinocytes that form the hard nail plate.
Sebaceous glands and apocrine glands are both outgrowths of hair follicles.
Sebaceous glands are present on the face and are active before birth. The secretion forms
a coating called vernix caseosa that protects the fetus from abrasions and chapping.
Sebaceous glands are mostly dormant by birth but are reactivated at puberty. Apocrine
glands also become active at puberty. Merocrine sweat glands are buds of the embryonic
germinative layer that push down to the dermis.
The skin shows signs of senescence by the time people reach their late 40s. Hair
grays because melanocytes die out and becomes thinner because mitosis slows and dead
hairs are not replaced. Sebaceous glands atrophy and skin and hair dry out. Skin
becomes looser and sags due to loss of elastic fibers. Atrophy of cutaneous blood
vessels, sweat glands, and subcutaneous fat make the elderly more vulnerable to
hypothermia and heat stroke. The elderly poor are especially vulnerable, as heat waves in
Chicago (1995) and France (2003) have tragically shown. Degeneration of skin is
accelerated by exposure to ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Ultraviolet rays induce skin cancer, a relatively common skin disorder that
appears most often in fair-haired, elderly people who have experienced a lifetime of sun
exposure. Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type but, fortunately, seldom
metastasizes. Squamous cell carcinoma arises in the stratum spinosum. Chances of
recovery are good if treated early. Malignant melanoma is the most deadly because of its
tendency to metastasize rapidly. It often manifests in preexisting moles.
Burns are the leading cause of accidental death. Death results from fluid loss,
infection, and toxic effects of burned, dead cells. Burns are classified as first-degree,
second-degree, or third-degree according to the depth of the tissue involvement.
In summary, the integumentary system is a dynamic, complex boundary that
serves many functions.

Key Concepts
 Dermatology
Branch of medicine involving the treatment of the integumentary system.
 Integumentary System

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Organ system that contains the skin, hair, nails, and cutaneous glands.
 Epidermis
Surface layer that consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Dermis
Connective tissue layer below the epidermis.
 Hypodermis
Subcutaneous layer beneath the dermis.
 Vitamin D
Vitamin D3 is produced in the skin in the presence of UV rays; further steps in the
liver and kidney produce the active form which enhances intestinal absorption of
calcium and supports mineralization of the skeleton.
 Keratinocytes
Majority of cells in the epidermis.
 Melanocytes
Cells in the stratum basale that synthesize the pigment melanin.
 Melanin
Pigment produced by melanocytes that is the most significant factor in skin color.
 Hair
Filament of keratinized cells that grows from a hair follicle.
 Follicle
Diagonal tube that dips deeply into the dermis and provides an envelope for the hair.
 Hair Cycle
The three phases of hair growth: Anagen, catagen, and telogen.
 Nails
Finger and toe nails are flat sheets of dead cells filled with hard keratin that support
the fleshy tips of the digits.
 Merocrine sweat glands
Produce watery perspiration that cools the body.
 Apocrine sweat glands
Produce a thick, milky secretion in response to stress or sexual arousal.
 Sebaceous glands
Holocrine glands associated with hair follicles that produce sebum.
 Mammary glands
Modified apocrine glands found in mammalian breasts that produce milk during
pregnancy and lactation.
 Skin Cancer
Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma are all
associated with exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Learning Strategies/Teaching Tips

 Refer students to appropriate sections of Anatomy & Physiology Revealed.
 Relate the anatomy of the skin to popular trends such as tattoos and piercing.
 Show a model of the skin to give perspective on complexity and relationships among
structures of the skin.

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written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

 Discuss current research regarding geographical patterns of incidence of skin cancer

and evidence for relationship between increasing size of ozone hole and skin cancer.
 Discuss hypotheses regarding the evolution of variation in human skin color. For
example, dark skin was adaptive at the equator, while lighter skin enhanced
production of Vitamin D in colder climates.

Additional Reading
Swerdlow, Joel. Unmasking skin. National Geographic Vol. 202 (5), November 2002.

Jablonski, Nina. 2006. A Natural History of the Skin. University of California Press.

Web Resources
National Geographic provides a site with interactive explorations of skin anatomy as well
as information on aging and the skin and links to articles about skin color variation.
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/skin-
article.html

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