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8.1 Introduction
• In the chapter-7 we considered circuits with a single energy storage
element (ESE) i.e. either a capacitor or an inductor.
• Such circuits are called first-order circuits, because the differential
equations describing them are of first-order.
• Now in this chapter we consider circuits with two ESEs, known as
second-order circuits because their responses are described by
differential equations that contain second derivatives.
• Typical examples of second-order circuits are RLC circuits, in which
the three kinds of passive elements are present.
• Examples of such circuits are shown in Fig. 8.1(a) and (b).
• Other examples are RL & RC circuits, shown
in Fig. 8.1(c) and (d).
• It is apparent from Fig. 8.1 that a second-
order circuit may have two storage elements
of different type or the same type.
• Usually two storage elements appear in circuit
when elements of the same type cannot be
represented by an equivalent single element.
• Op amp circuit with two storage elements is
also a 2nd-order circuit.
• As with first-order circuits, a second-order
circuit may contain several resistors and
dependent and independent sources.
• A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential
equation and consists of resistors plus equivalent of two ESEs.
• Analysis of second-order circuits is similar to first-order circuits.
• We will first consider circuits that are excited by the initial conditions
of the storage elements.
• Although such circuits may contain dependent sources, they are free
of independent sources.
• These source-free circuits will give natural responses as expected.
• Later we will consider circuits excited by independent sources.
• Such circuits yield both the transient and the steady-state response.
• We consider only DC independent sources in this chapter.
• Case of sinusoidal & exponential sources is deferred to later chapters.
• We begin by learning how to obtain the initial conditions for the
circuit variables and their derivatives.
• Then we consider series and parallel RLC circuits for the two cases of
excitation: i.e. by initial conditions of the ESEs and by step inputs.
• Later we will examine some other types of second-order circuits.
Finding Initial and Final Values
• Major problem encountered in handling second-order circuits is
finding the initial and final conditions on circuit variables.
• Getting the initial and final values of v and i is comparatively easy,
but NOT finding the initial values of their derivatives: dv/dt and di/dt.
• Hence let us devote some time to understanding the processes of
determining v(0), i(0), dv(0)/dt, di(0)/dt, i(), and v().
• Unless otherwise stated, v; always denotes capacitor voltage, while the
symbol i; always represents the inductor current.
• Two key points to keep in mind for defining the initial conditions are,
• Firstly; as always in any circuit analysis technique, carefully handle
the (1) polarity of voltage v(t) across the capacitor and the (2)
direction of the current i(t) through the inductor.
• Keep in mind that v and i are defined strictly according to the passive
sign convention that was introduced in BEE course. What is PSC?
• Secondly; keep in mind that the capacitor voltage as well as and the
inductor current is always continuous so that,
• v(0+) = v(0-) (8.la).
• i(0+) = i(0-) (8.1b).
• Where t = 0– denotes time just before a switching event and t = 0+ is
the time just after the switching event, assuming that the switching
event takes place at t = 0.
• Thus, in finding initial conditions, always focus first on those vari-
ables that cannot change abruptly, i.e. capacitor voltage & inductor
current, i.e. by applying Eq. (8.1). Examples below illustrate the ideas.
• Example 8.1; switch in Fig. 8.2 has been closed for a long time.
• Switch opens at t = 0.
• Find:
a) i(0+) and v(0+),
b) di(0+)/dt and dv(0+)/dt,
c) i() and v().
• (a). If the switch is closed a long time before t = 0, it means that the
circuit has reached dc steady state at t < 0.
• In steady state, inductor is like a short circuit and capacitor an open
circuit, so equivalent circuit at t = 0 – would appear as in Fig. 8.3(a).
• Applying KVL to the right mesh in Fig. 8.6(b) yield mesh equation,
• vL(0+) = vC(0+) + 20 = 0
• Although not asked, we can find diR(0+)/dt as well. (VR 5iR in book)
• (c). As t , circuit is in steady state, using Fig. 8.6(a) with 3 A source added,
• (8.2a).
• (8.2b).
• Applying KVL to circuit of Fig. 8.8,
• (8.3).
• (8.4).
• (8.5).
• With the two initial conditions established in Eqs. (8.2b) i.e. i(0) = IO,
and (8.5) above, let’s proceed to solve 2nd order differential Eq. (8.4).
• Based on our experience with first-order circuits, it would be in order
to suggest that the solution of Eq. (8.4) is of exponential form.
• So we let, i = Aest (8.6).
• Where A and s are constants that need to be determined.
• Substituting Eq. (8.6) into Eq. (8.4) and carrying out the necessary
differentiations, we obtain, or,
• (8.7).
• Since i = Aest is the assumed solution we are trying to find, only the
expression in parentheses can be zero, hence, we can say that,
• (8.8).
• This quadratic equation is known as the characteristic equation of the
differential Eq. (8.4), as the roots of the equation dictate character of i.
• The two roots of Eq. (8.8) are,
• (8.9a).
• (8.9b).
• Refer to appendix C.1 for the formulae to find roots of a quadratic equation.
• Because of their association with the natural response of circuit, roots
sl & s2 are called natural frequencies, measured in nepers per second.
• A more compact way of expressing the roots is as shown below.
• (8.10).
• Where, (8.11).
• o in Eq. 8.11, is known as the resonant frequency or strictly, as the
un-damped natural frequency, expressed in radians per second (rad/s).
• is the neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers
per second. In terms of and o, Eq. (8.8) can be re-written as,
• (8.8a).
• Variables s & o are quantities that will be discussed frequently.
• Two values of s in Eq. (8.10) indicate that there are two possible
solutions for i, each of which is of the form of the assumed solution in
Eq. (8.6); that is, (8.12).
• Eq. (8.4) that we aim to solve is a linear equation, any linear combination
of two distinct solutions of i1 & i2 also provide a solution to Eq. (8.4).
• A complete or total solution of Eq. (8.4) would therefore require a
linear combination of i1 and i2.
• Thus, the natural response of the series RLC circuit is given by,
• (8.13).
• Where the constants Al and A2 are determined from the initial values
• The natural response is, , i(t) = A1e-( - jd)t + A2e-( + jd)t (8.23a).
• Which can also be written as, i(t) = e-t (A1ejdt + A2e-jdt) (8.23b).
• Using Euler’s identities, ej = cos + j sin & e– j = cos – j sin (8.24).
• i(t) = e-t [A1(cos dt + j sin dt) + A2(cos dt – j sin dt)], or else,
• Replacing constants, (A1 + A2) and j(A1 – A2) with constants B1 and
• Presence of sine and cosine functions, renders it clear that the natural
• So,
• Thus, s1 = – 0.101, s2 = – 9.899.
• This is also evident from the fact that the roots are real and negative.
• Home Work; P_Problem 8.3 & Problem 8.7.
• Example 8.4; Find i(t) in circuit of Fig. 8.10.
Assume that the circuit has reached steady
state at t = 0–.
• For t < 0, the switch is closed, steady state has reached,the capacitor is
open circuit while the inductor acts like a closed circuit.
• The equivalent circuit would appear as shown in Fig. 8.11(a).
• So, i(0–) = 10/(6 + 4) = 1 A and v(0–) = 6i(0) = 6 V. (VDR also works)
• (8.4.3).
• (8.27b).
• Being in parallel, all elements have the same voltage v across them.
• Applying KCL at the top node yields,
• (8.28).
• (8.29).
• (8.30).
• (8.31).
they play the same role in the solution. What are these term known as?
• Just like the series RLC circuits, in RLC parallel circuit also there are
and, .
• As < o in this case, the response is underdamped.
• Roots of characteristic equation, are,
• Hence, (8.5.9).
• At t = 0 & v(0) = 5 V, Eq. (8.5.9) yield, v(0) = 5 = Al (8.5.10).
• By Eq. (8.38),
• Differentiating Eq. (8.5.9), yield,
• Notice that by
increasing value of
R, the degree of
damping decreases
• At t > 0, the switch is closed and the voltage source along with 30
• (8.6.3).
• At t = 0, impose the condition listed in Eq. (8.6.1), i.e. v(0) = 25 V.
• v(0) = 25 = Al + A2 Or A2 = 25 – Al (8.6.4).
• Taking the derivative of v(t) in Eq. (8.6.3), provides,
• (8.40).
• It has same coefficients as Eq. (8.4), i.e. the 2nd order differential
equation drawn for series RLC circuit, only the variables are different.
• Coefficient similarity is key to determining the frequency parameters.
• Hence, it can be concluded that the characteristic equation for the
series RLC circuit is NOT affected by the presence of the dc source.
• The solution to Eq. (8.40) has two components: (1) the transient
response vt(t) and (2) the steady-state response vss(t); that is to say,
• (8.41).
• Transient response vt(t) is part of total response that dies out with time
• The form of the transient response is the same as the form of the
solution obtained (in Section 8.3) for the source-free circuit, evident
by Eqs. (8.14), (8.21), and (8.26).
• Therefore, the transient response vt(t) for the overdamped,
underdamped, and critically damped cases are:
• (8.42a).
• (8.42b).
• (8.42c).
• The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).
• In the circuit in Fig. 8.18, the final value of the capacitor voltage is the
same as the source voltage Vs. Hence,
• (8.43).
• Thus, the complete solution for the overdamped, underdamped, and
critically damped cases are:
• (8.44a).
• (8.44a).
• (8.44a).
• The values of the constants Al and A2 are obtained from the initial
conditions i.e. v(0) and dv(0)/dt.
• Keep in mind that v and i are, respectively, the voltage across the
capacitor and the current through the inductor.
• Therefore, Eq. (8.44) only applies for finding v.
• Once capacitor voltage vC = v is known, current i can be determined.
• Series circuit current is given by i = C dv/dt, which is the same
current through the capacitor, inductor, and resistor.
• Hence, the voltage across the resistor is vR = iR, while the inductor
voltage is vL = L di/dt.
• Alternatively, the complete response for any variable x(t) can be found
directly, as it has the general form, x(t) = xss(t) + xt(t) (8.45).
• Where, xss = x() is the final value and xt(t) is the transient response.
• Final value is found as in Section 8.2 (Finding Initial & Final Values).
• Transient response has the same form as in Eq. (8.42), and the
associated constants are determined from Eq. (8.44) based on the
values of x(0) and dx(0)/dt.
• Example 8.7: For the circuit in Fig. 8.19, find v(t) and i(t) for t > 0.
• Consider three cases: R = 5 , R = 4 ,
and R = 1 .
• CASE 1: When R = 5 .
• For t < 0, switch is closed for long time.
• Circuit is in steady state, the capacitor behaves like an open circuit
while the inductor acts like a short circuit.
• The initial current through the inductor i(0) = 24 / (5 + 1) = 4 A.
• The initial voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the 1 resistor; that is, v(0) = 1.i(0) = 4 V.
• For t > 0, the switch is opened, the 1 resistor gets disconnected
leaving behind a series RLC circuit with the voltage source.
• The characteristic roots can now be determined as follows:
• and
• Thus, (8.7.1).
• Current through inductor can’t change abruptly and being in series the
•
• Derivative of v in Eq. (8.7.1) i.e. , yield,
• (8.7.3).
• At t = 0, (8.7.4).
• At t = 0, (8.7.10).
• From Eq. (8.7.8) putting Al = –19.2 in Eq. (8.7.10), yield A2 = – 19.2.
• Thus, Eq. (8.7.7) becomes, (8.7.11).
• Inductor current is same as the capacitor current; i.e. .
• Multiplying Eq. (8.7.9) by C = 0.25 and substituting the values of Al
and A2 gives back, (8.7.12).
• Note that i(0) = 4.8 A, as expected.
• CASE 3: When R = 1 .
• At t < 0, the initial inductor current is, .
• The initial voltage across the capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the 1 resistor, i.e. v(0) = 1.i(0) = 12 V.
• Now, , while O = 2 remains unchanged.
• (8.7.13).
• ……………
(8.7.16).
• Swap Al = – 12, find A2 = 21.694, replace them in Eq. (8.7.13) & get,
• . (8.7.17).
• As iC = i(t) = C(dv/dt), C = 0.25, Al = – 12 & A2 = 21.694 are known.
• So product of Eq. (8.7.16) & C with substituted A1 & A2 values yield,
• and dv/dt is given by Eq. (8.7.16). (8.7.18).
• As expected i(0) = 12 A.
• Figure 8.20 plots the
responses for three cases.
• From this figure you can
observe that the critically
damped response reaches
the step input of 24 V the
fastest.
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.7.
Step Response of a Parallel RLC Circuit
• Aim is to find current i resulting from
sudden application of a dc current in the
parallel RLC circuit shown in Fig. 8.22.
• For t > 0, switch is open. Applying KCL at the top node reveal.
• (8.4.6).
• Substituting in Eq. (8.46) and dividing it by LC, reveals,
• (8.4.7).
• Which has the same characteristic equation as Eq. (8.29).
• The complete solution to Eq. (8.47) again consists of the transient
response it(t) and the steady-state response iss; that is,
• (8.4.8).
• Transient response is the same as what was observed in Section 8.4.
• The steady-state response is the final value of i.
• In the circuit in Fig. 8.22, the final value of the current through the
inductor is the same as the source current IS. Thus,
• (8.4.9).
• (8.4.9).
• (8.4.9).
• The constants Al and A2 in each case can be determined from the
initial conditions for i and its derivaqtive di/dt.
• Note that Eq. (8.49) again, applies only for finding inductor current i.
• But once the inductor current iL = i is known, we can find v = L di/dt,
which is the same voltage across inductor, capacitor, and resistor. Why?
• Hence, the current through the resistor is iR = v/R, while the capacitor
current is iC = C dv/dt.
• Alternatively, the complete response for any variable x(t) may be
found directly, using, (8.50).
• Where xSS, and xt are its final and transient responses, respectively.
• Example 8.8; In the circuit of Fig. 8.23, find i(t) and iR(t) for t > 0 ?
• For t < 0, the switch is open, and the circuit is partitioned into two
independent sub circuits.
• As 4 A current flows in the
inductor, hence, i(0) = 4 A.
• Voltage source 30u(-t) = 30
when t < 0 and 0 when t > 0.
• Therefore, the voltage source is operative for t < 0.
• Capacitor acts like an open circuit and the voltage across it is the same
as the voltage across the 20 resistor connected in parallel with it.
• By VDR, initial capacitor voltage is, .
• For t > 0, the switch is closed, resulting in a parallel RLC circuit with
a current source.
• The voltage source is zero which means it acts like a short-circuit.
• The two 20 resistors are now in parallel.
• They are combined to give R = 20 || 20 = 10 .
• The characteristic roots are determined as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
• Thus,
• As > O, we have the overdamped case, so applying Eq. (6.49) give
• Current, (8.8.1).
• Where IS = 4 A is the final value of i(t).
• We now use the initial conditions to determine Al and A2.
• At t = 0, i(0) = 4 = 4 + Al + A2 A2 = -A1 (8.8.2).
• Taking the derivative of i(t) at t = 0, in Eq. (8.8.1), yield,
• (8.8.3).
• But,
• Substituting this into Eq. (8.8.3) and incorporating Eq. (8.8.2), we get
0.75 = (11.978 - 0.5218)A2 A2 = 0.0655.
• Thus, Al = – 0.0655 and A2 = 0.0655.
• Inserting Al and A2 in Eq. (8.8.1) gives the complete solution i.e.
•
• From i(t), we obtain v(t) = L di/dt and,
•
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.8, Problems 8.45 and 8.49
General Second-Order Circuits
• Having learned series and parallel RLC circuits, we are prepared to
apply the practiced ideas to any second-order circuit having one or
more independent sources with constant values.
• Given any second-order circuit, we determine its step response x(t)
(which may be voltage or current) by taking the following four steps:
1 We first determine the initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)/dt and the final
value x(), as discussed in Section 8.2.
2 We turn off the independent sources and find the form of the transient
response xt(t) by applying KCL and KVL.
2 Once a second-order differential equation is obtained, we determine
its characteristic roots.
2 Depending on whether the response is overdamped, critically damped,
or underdamped, we obtain xt(t) with two unknown constants as we
did in the previous sections.
3 We obtain the steady-state response as, (8.51).
3 Where x() is the final value of x, obtained in step 1.
4 The total response is now found as the sum of the transient response
and steady-state response (8.52).
4 We finally determine the constants associated with the transient
response by imposing the initial conditions x(0) and dx(0)/dt,
determined in step 1.
• We can apply this general procedure to find the step response of any
second-order circuit. The following examples illustrate the four steps.
• Example 8.9: Find the complete
response v and then i for t > 0 in the
circuit of Fig. 8.25.
• We first find the initial & final values.
• At t < 0, the switch is open.
• Circuit is in steady state & equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig. 8.26(a).
• Clearly, v(0-) = 12 V and i(0-) = 0.
• At t = 0+, the switch is closed, the
equivalent circuit is as in Fig. 8.26(b).
• By the continuity of capacitor voltage
and inductor current, we know that
• Voltage v(0+) = v(0-) = 12 V and
current i(0+) = i(0-) = 0 (8.9.1).
• To get dv(0+)/dt, we use C dv/dt = iC,
by rearranging it into, dv/dt = iC/C.
•
• Applying KCL at node a in Fig. 8.26(b)
•
• Hence, (8.9.2).
• The final values are obtained when the inductor is replaced by a short
circuit and the capacitor by an open circuit in Fig. 8.26(b), giving,
• (8.9.3).
• Next, we obtain the form of the transient response for t > 0.
• By turning off the 12 V voltage source,
we have the circuit as in Fig. 8.27.
• Applying KCL at node a in Fig. 8.27
gives, (8.9.4).
• Applying KVL to the left mesh, yield,
• (8.9.5).
• Now to find value of v, substitute i from Eq. (8.9.4) into Eq. (8.9.5)
and obtain,
• Solving it leaves,
• We obtain the characteristic equation as, , with roots
s1 = – 2 and s2 = – 3.
• Thus, the natural response is (8.9.6).
• Where A and B are unknown constants to be determined later.
• Steady-state response is (8.9.7).
• Complete response is (8.9.8).
• To find A and B we use initial values from Eq. (8.9.1) i.e. v(0) = 12.
• Substituting v(0) = 12 into Eq. (8.9.8) at t = 0 gives,
• (8.9.9).
• Taking the derivative of v in Eq. (8.9.8), provides,
• (8.9.10).
• Substituting Eq. (8.9.2) into Eq. (8.9.10) at t = 0 gives,
• (8.9.11).
• Eqs. (8.9.9) & (8.9.11), yield, A = 12 & B = -4, so that Eq. (8.9.8)
becomes, (8.9.12).
• From v, we can compute other quantities of interest by referring to
Fig. 8.26(b). To obtain i, for example,
• Solving, i
for t > 0 (8.9.13).
• Note that i(0) = 0, agrees with Eq. (8.9.1).
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.9 & Problem 8.53.
• Example 8.10: Find vo(t) for t > 0 in the
circuit of Fig. 8.29?
• And (8.10.7).
• From Eq. (8.10.6), ( 8.10.8).
• Substituting Eq. (8.10.8) into Eq. (8.10.7) gives
• or,
• From this we obtain the characteristic equation as,
• Which has roots s = – 3 and s = – 10, hence, the form of the transient
response is (8.10.9).
• A and B in Eq. (8.10.9) are constants.
• The steady-state response is (8.10.10).
• From Eqs. (8.10.9) and (8.10.10), we obtain the complete response as,
• (8.10.11).
• We finally obtain A and B from the initial values.
• From Eqs. (8.10.1) and (8.10.11), (8.11.12).
• Taking the derivative of Eq. (8.10.11), setting t = 0 in the derivative,
and enforcing Eq. (8.10.3), we obtain, (8.11.13).
• From Eqs. (8.10.12) and (8.10.13), A = – 4/3 and B = – 1, thus,
• (8.11.14).
• Next we obtain i2 from i1. Applying KVL to the left loop in Fig.
8.30(a) gives, .
• Substituting for i1 in Eq. (8.10.14) gives,
• (8.10.15).
• From Fig 8.29, (8.10.16).
• Substituting Eqs. (8.10.14) and (8.10.15) into Eq. (8.10.16) yields,
• (8.10.17).
• Note that vo(0) = 0, as expected from Eq. (8.10.2).
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.10 and Problem 8.57.
• We skip sections 8.8 (op amp as 2nd order circuits) and 8.9 (P_spice
analysis of 2nd order circuits) and move on to section 8.10.
Duality
• The concept of duality is a time-saving, effort-effective measure of
solving circuit problems.
• Consider the similarity between Eq. (8.4) i.e. and
Eq. (8.29) i.e. .
• The two equations are the same, except that we must inter-change the
following quantities: (1) voltage and current, (2) resistance and
conductance, (3) capacitance and inductance.
• Thus, it sometimes occurs in circuit analysis that two different circuits
have the same equations and solutions, except that the roles of certain
complementary elements are interchanged.
• This interchangeability is known as the principle of duality.
• The duality principle asserts a parallelism between pairs of
characterizing equations and theorems of electric circuits.
• Dual pairs are shown in Table 8.1 on next slide.
• Note that power does not appear in
Table 8.1, because power has no dual.
• The reason for this is the principle of
linearity; since power is not linear,
duality does not apply.
• Also notice that the principle of duality
• First draw a line between one node and another crossing an element.
• Next replace the line joining the nodes by the duals of the elements
which it crosses.
• For example, a line between nodes 1 and 2 crosses a 2-H inductor, and
we place a 2-F capacitor (an inductor's dual) on the line.
• A line between nodes 1 and 0 crossing the 6-V voltage source will
contain a 6-A current source.
• By drawing lines crossing all the elements, we construct the dual
circuit on the given circuit as in Fig. 8.45(a).
• The dual circuit is redrawn in Fig. 8.45(b) for clarity.
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.14 and Problem 8.74.
• Example 8.15: Obtain the dual of the circuit in Fig. 8.48?
• The dual circuit is constructed on the original circuit as in Fig. 8.49(a).
• First locate nodes 1 to 3 and the reference node 0.
• Joining nodes 1 and 2, cross the 2-F capacitor, which is replaced by a
2-H inductor.
• Joining nodes 2 and 3, cross the 20 resistor, which is replaced by a
1/20 resistor.
• keep doing this until all the elements are crossed.
• The result is in Fig. 8.49(a).
• The dual circuit is redrawn in Fig. 8.49(b).
• To verify the polarity of the voltage source and the direction of the
current source, apply mesh currents i1, i2, and i3 (all in the clockwise
direction) in the original circuit of Fig. 8.48.
• The 10 V voltage source produces positive mesh current i1, so that its
dual is a 10 A current source directed from 0 to 1.
• Also, i3 = – 3 A in Fig. 8.48 has as its dual v3 = – 3 V in Fig. 8.49(b).
• Home Work: P_Problem 8.15 and Problem 8.75.
• Self Study: Applications of second order circuits (8.11), review
questions 8.1 through 8.10.