Characteristics of Water: Hapter

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Chapter
9
Characteristics of
Water
9.1 Introduction
Water is an essential component of all life forms on the earth. The availability
of water at the right place and in the right form is a very important
consideration when it comes to sustainability of life. In fact, water is a
symbol of life and is called “blue gold”. It is a precious commodity without
which life cannot survive.
Water is found in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. More than 90% of
water in nature is not suitable for human use. The amount of water available
for human beings, plants, and animals is much less than 1% of the total
amount of water present on the earth (Table 9.1).
Water covers approximately 70% of the earth’s surface. It is an essential
liquid and has numerous applications in agriculture, cleaning, cooking,
and electricity generation. It is extensively used in the manufacture of
various solvents and coolants. It is a prerequisite for aquatic life and is an
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Table 9.1 Sources and amounts (percentage) of water on earth

Location (source) Percentage of total water Approximate average residence time
Oceans 97.2 Infinite
Atmosphere (water vapours) 0.001 9 days
Rivers and streams 0.0001 2 weeks
Groundwater (up to a depth of 0.31 Hundreds to thousands of years
0.8 km)
Lakes (freshwater) 0.0009 Tens of years
Ice caps and glaciers 2.15 Tens of thousands of years
Source US Geological Survey
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indispensable nutrient for living organisms. It constitutes about 50%–60% of

an adult human’s body weight. Newborn babies contain about 80% water.
Next to oxygen, water is the most essential for life. Without water,
humans cannot survive for more than a couple of days. Water is known
to perform a number of vital roles for humans and other living beings.
Water is present in each and every cell in human beings, for example 80%
in blood, 75% in brain, 90% in lungs, 75% in muscles, and 20% in bones.
Water helps to absorb nitrogen from intestines and carries nutrients to all
parts of the body. It helps to eliminate water-soluble products through the
kidneys. Water plays an important role in regulating body temperature,
serves as a lubricant for joint, forms saliva, keeps mucosal membrane soft,
and alleviates constipation and acidity.
Water is the only natural resource that is used in large quantities.
Its demand has increased considerably as a result of rapid increase in
population, industrialization, and agriculture. It is, therefore, necessary to
look for other sources of water. Two such possibilities are: (i) the use of
groundwater and (ii) desalination of sea water.
Water is regarded as a universal solvent. In fact, there is no other liquid
that can be compared to water as a solvent. Natural water is slightly acidic
(pH 5.6) owing to the presence of dissolved CO2 (forming carbonic acid,
H2CO3). Water is the only substance whose solid form (ice) is lighter than its
liquid form. It expands by 8% when it freezes and becomes less dense. This
is the reason why ice floats on water. If ice were heavier than water, it would
sink to the bottom of waterbody. Freezing of waterbodies from the bottom
up will be fatal to aquatic life. Water is transparent to light, and because
of this photosynthetic organisms can live below the surface of water.
9.2 Properties of Water

The principal physical properties of water are summarized in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Principal physical properties of water
Density (g/mL, 3.98°C) 1.0a

Melting point (°C, at 760 mm Hg) 0
Boiling point (°C, at 760 mm Hg) 100.0
Temperature at maximum density (°C, cal/g°C) 3.9 (79.71)
Specific heat (cal/g°C) 1.00b
Surface tension (mN/m, 20°C) 72.75c
Dynamic viscosity (mNs/m2, 20°C) 1.000d
Specific electric conductivity (S/m, 125°C) 5.10 –6
Contd...
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Characteristics of Water 159
Table 9.2 Contd...
Critical temperature (°C) 374.0

2
Critical density (g/cm ) 0.322
Critical specific volume (cm2/g) 3.11
Dielectric constant (20°C) 80.20
a
Water density decreases as the temperature falls to 0°C. Density also decreases when the
temperature exceeds 3.98°C. It reaches the same density of ice at about 70°C.
b
Water has the highest specific heat among all substances.
c
Of all liquids, water has the highest surface tension. The surface tension decreases with increasing
temperature.
d
The viscosity of water changes with varying temperature.
9.3 Potable and Non-potable Water

Only about 1% of the total water is potable (suitable for drinking and
consumption). The rest is non-potable (not fit for use and consumption).
This is because water contains a large amount of impurities, which render
it unsuitable for use.
9.4 Water Contaminants

The contaminants in water include pathogens, suspended particles, dissolved
salts, organic compounds, radioactive elements, and gases. Pathogens are
disease-causing microorganisms, which mainly arise from human and
animal faecal wastes. Deadly waterborne diseases include typhoid, cholera,
and diarrhoea. Cryptosporidium is the cause of a number of gastrointestinal
disorders. The microbes in water can be killed by disinfection.
Particulates are particles such as dust, sand, rust, and other substances
that are insoluble in water and must be removed. Dissolved salts constitute
another major impurity in water. Sodium chloride is the major dissolved
salt (saline water). Calcium and magnesium salts, if present, make the
water hard. Another common impurity found in water is iron. Water is also
contaminated by the presence of toxic metals. Some of these are as follows:
• Aluminium can cause Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases.
• Hexavalent chromium released from commercial set-ups causes
dermatitis, asthma, stomach and internal bleeding, liver and kidney
damage.
• Lead which mainly results from natural erosion can retard physical
and mental growth in children, also causes kidney-related problems,
and high blood pressure in adults.
• Mercury comes in contact with water from run-off from landfills
and industrial units, which in turn cause neurotoxicity, reproductive
toxicity, and kidney damage.
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• Arsenic reaches waterbodies via erosion of natural deposits, copper

smelting, and glass and electronic production waste. It causes skin
problems, affects the circulatory system, and increases the risk of
skin, bladder, kidney, and lung cancer.
• Inorganic anions such as nitrate, nitrite, fluoride, and cyanide are
responsible for a number of health problems.
Organic compounds used in the manufacture of polymers, herbicides,
insecticides, pharmaceuticals, and petroleum products can leach into
groundwater and pollute it. Contamination of water by radioactive elements
is also a very serious problem. Gases such as H2S, SO2, and NH3 also
contaminate water. Table 9.3 gives some contaminants and their permissible
limit in drinking water.
Table 9.3 Drinking water specifications (IS: 10500, 1992)
Parameter IS: 10500 requirement Undesirable effect beyond IS: 10500

(desirable limit) the desirable limit permissible limit
pH 6.5–8.5 Mucous membrane affected No relaxation
Colour 5 Consumer acceptance 25
(Hazen units) decreases
Odour Unobjectionable — —
Taste Agreeable — —
Turbidity (NTU) 5 Consumer acceptance 10
decreases
Total hardness as 300 Adverse effect on domestic 600
CaCO3 use
Iron as Fe 0.30 Adverse effect on domestic 1.0
use
Chloride as Cl 250 Taste and palatability are 1000
affected
Residual free chlorine 0.20 — —
Dissolved solids 500 Palatability decreases and 2000

causes gastro irritation
Calcium 75 Adverse effect on domestic 200
use
Magnesium 30 Same as Ca 100
Sulphate 200 Gastrointestinal irritation 400
Nitrates 45 Methanemoglobinaemia 100
takes place
Fluoride 1.0 Fluorosis 1.5
Mercury 0.001 Toxic No relaxation
Contd...
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Table 9.3 Contd...
Parameter IS: 10500 requirement Undesirable effect beyond IS: 10500

(desirable limit) the desirable limit permissible limit
Arsenic 0.05 Water becomes toxic No relaxation
Cyanide 0.05 Water becomes toxic No relaxation
Lead 0.05 Water becomes toxic No relaxation
6+
Chromium as Cr 0.05 Carcinogenic No relaxation
Pesticides Absent Toxic 0.001
Radioactive materials: — — —
α-emitters, Bq/L;
β-emitters, Pci/L
Alkalinity 200 Water becomes unpleasant 600
Aluminium 0.03 Cumulative effect 0.2
9.5 Hard and Soft Water

Water from any source invariably contains certain dissolved mineral salts.
These salts include magnesium and calcium carbonates, sulphates, and
chlorides in varying amounts, and are responsible for hardness in water.
Water that produces lather with soap is called soft water, and water that
produces an insoluble precipitate on boiling or when soap is added is called
hard water. Such water cannot be used for laundry work because a large
amount of soap is required for decreasing the hardness of the water. It
also cannot be used for the generation of steam in boilers because it forms
scales. There are certain industries such as pharmaceuticals and dairy that
strictly require soft water for carrying out production.
Soap reacts with Ca or Mg salts present in hard water to produce
a white precipitate, which results in the loss of soap and reduces
the cleaning action. Soft water, on the other hand, does not contain
dissolved salts of Ca and Mg. Water also consists of Na salts; however,
the presence of Na salts does not contribute to the hardness of water.

Depending on the nature of dissolved solids, water can have either
temporary hardness (also known as carbonate hardness) or permanent
hardness (also known as non-carbonate hardness). Temporary hardness is
caused by the presence of Ca or Mg bicarbonates in water. Such hardness
can be removed by boiling the water, when bicarbonates form insoluble
carbonates, which settle down and can be removed by filtration.
Temporary hardness of water can also be removed by the addition
of calculated quantities of lime (calcium hydroxide), which reacts with
bicarbonates of Ca and Mg to give Ca or Mg carbonates, which settle
down and can be removed by filtration. This method is known as Clark’s
method.
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Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of chlorides

and sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe, or other heavy metals. Both temporary and
permanent hardness can be removed by the following methods:
• Ion exchange resins can be used to remove hardness of water. These
resins are of two types — cation exchange resins and anion exchange
resins. A cation exchange resin holds cations (for example, Ca2+, Mg2+,
and other metal ions) in water. It contains a sulphonic acid (–SO3H)
or carboxylic acid (–COOH) functional groups.
An anion exchange resin performs the function of holding the anions

together (for example Cl –, SO42–).
Hard water is first passed through a cation exchange resin, which

removes Ca and Mg ions, and then through an anion exchange resin, which
removes Cl–, SO42–, CO 32–, and HCO3–. The water that comes out is soft water.
The ion exchange resins are called deionizers.
Permutit process: In this method, zeolites are used for the exchange of
cations in hard water. Natural and synthetic zeolites are used for reducing
water hardness.
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Summary
• Water is an essential component of life and no life is possible without
water.
• The water available for human consumption is less than 1%.
• Water covers 70% of the surface of the earth.
• Water performs a number of vital roles for humans and other living
beings.
• The most important physical properties of water include density,
specific heat, surface tension, and viscosity.
• The contaminants in water include pathogens, suspended particles,
dissolved salts, organic compounds, radioactive elements, and
gases.
• Water that contains sulphates and chlorides of Mg and Ca is called
hard water.
• Water that contains bicarbonates of Mg and Ca is called soft water.
Exercise
A. Multiple Choice Questions
1. The maximum amount of water is present in
(a) Oceans (b) Rivers and streams
(c) Groundwater (d) Lakes
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Natural water is slightly acidic owing to dissolved CO2.
(b) Water is regarded as a universal solvent.
(c) Ice is lighter than water.
(d) Of all the substances, water has the highest specific heat.
(e) All are correct.

3. The most harmful contaminant of water is
(a) Pathogens (b) Suspended particles
(c) Dissolved salts (d) Radioactive elements
4. Toxic metals in water as contaminants include
(a) Aluminium (b) Hexavalent chromium
(c) Mercury (d) Arsenic
(e) All of these
Answers
1. (a) 2. (e) 3. (d) 4. (e)
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B. Short Answer Questions

1. Give sources of water on earth.
2. Which of the physical properties of water are most important?
3. Give an account of water contaminants.
4. Write notes on the following:
(a) Hard and soft water.
(b) Potable and non-potable water.
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Chapter
10 Water Pollution
10.1 Introduction
Water pollution is the degradation of the quality of water that makes it
unsafe or harmful to humans, animals, and aquatic life. In fact, any physical,
biological, or chemical change that degrades the quality of water results in
water pollution.
Water covers about 75% of the earth’s surface, in the form of oceans, seas,
rivers, and lakes. Oceans contain almost 97% of the total water available
on the earth. Out of the remaining water, a sizeable amount is locked in
frozen form in the polar regions and glaciers. Only about 1% is available
as freshwater (potable water).
Water found in rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands is called surface
water. Water that percolates into the ground and fills the pores in the
soil and rock is called groundwater. It constitutes about 0.31% of the total
global water. Porous water-saturated layers of sand and gravel through
which groundwater flows are called aquifers. Most of the groundwater and
aquifers are replenished naturally by rainwater that percolates through soil

and rock.
Water has a high value of latent heat, and this moderates the temperature
of the biosphere. The solubility of oxygen in water is responsible for the
survival of aquatic life. There is loss of water by evaporation, but its total
amount remains the same because of continuous circulation of water in
waterbodies through natural processes (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2). Rapid
industrialization by humans is a dominant source of waste materials into
waterbodies such as seas and rivers. This has created serious environmental
problems, which have made survival of life forms on land as well as in
waterbodies a challenge.
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10.2 Types of Water Pollutants

Basically, water pollutants fall into the following three categories:
(i) Biological agents (disease-causing organisms such as virus, bacteria,
protozoa, and worms)
(ii) Chemical agents (nitrates, phosphates, acids, salts, toxic heavy metals,
oil, gasoline, pesticides, dyes, paints, plastics, detergent, domestic
waste, animal excreta, and radioactive substances)
(iii) Physical agents (suspended solids, insoluble particles of soil, and silt)
10.2.1 Biological Agents

Pathogenic organisms such as virus, bacteria, and protozoa are very
serious water pollutants, as far as human health is concerned. Some of
the waterborne diseases include cholera, bacterial and amoebic dysentery,
gastroenteritis, typhoid, polio, viral hepatitis, and worm influenza. Some
insects that have aquatic larvae are responsible for transmitting malaria,
dengue, yellow fever, and filariasis. In India, the onset of rainy season is
accompanied by such epidemics. Overpopulated areas such as slums and
unplanned industrial and human settlements are some of the contributory
factors. Water gets contaminated by human wastes, domestic sewage, and
wastewater discharges from tanneries and slaughterhouses.
10.2.2 Chemical Agents
Chemical pollutants listed in Table 10.1 can be water soluble, water insoluble,
or oxygen-demanding wastes. These can be inorganic in nature; for example
nitrates, phosphates, acids, salts, and toxic heavy metals. Organic chemical
pollutants include oil, gasoline, pesticides, dyes, paints, plastics, cleaning
solvents, detergents, and organic wastes such as domestic sewage and animal
waste. Radioactive substances are released into waterbodies as a result of
processing of uranium ore, wastes from nuclear research laboratories, and
other anthropogenic activities.
Table 10.1 Major water pollutants, their sources, and effects

Pollutants Sources Effects
Biological agents: Human sewage, animal and plant Decomp osition of ox ygen -
bacteria, parasitic fungi,wastes, decaying organic matter, consuming bacteria depletes
and protozoa industrial wastes (paper mill, dissolved oxygen in water; death of
food-processing units), natural fish, destruction of plant life, foul
lands and urban run-off odour, poisoned livestock
Chemical agents: acids, Natural run-off from land; Toxic to various life forms and
salts, metals (lead and industrial wastes; acid deposition; human through food chain, can
mercury), plant nutrients leaded gasoline, lead smelting, cause genetic and birth defects;
(phosphates and nitrates) pesticides; agricultural run-off; agricultural and industrial uses;
mining, domestic sewage; food- upsets ecosystems of waterbodies;
processing units; detergents causes eutrophication
Contd...
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Water Pollution 167
Table 10.1 Contd...

Pollutants Sources Effects
Organic chemicals, Agriculture, forestry; pest control Toxic to aquatic life forms as well
agrochemicals, industries; home and industrial as organisms that depend on such
detergents, chlorine wastes; paper industry; bleaching waterbodies; eutrophication of
compounds, oil, grease, process; machine and pipeline waterbodies
and plastics wastes; oil spills
Radioactive substances Nuclear wastes from research Radioactive substances enter the
laboratories and hospitals; food chain and cause birth and
processing of uranium ore; genetic defects; causative agents
nuclear plants for cancer
Physical agents Run-off from agriculture; mining, Increase in temperature, lowers
forestry; construction activities; the solubility of oxygen in
power plants, industrial cooling water; reduction of biotic life in
waterbodies
A major problem associated with agricultural run-off is eutrophication

(because of excess fertilizer use). Organic wastes and inorganic nutrients
enrich the waterbodies, which may result into eutrophication. Organic
wastes that include both domestic and sewage wastes, wastes from various
industrial processing plants, and run-off from agricultural lands, and
inorganic wastes, such as nitrates and phosphates, reach the waterbodies
(ponds, lakes) and cause an increase in their nutrient concentration.
Nutrients from organic wastes are released by the activity of aerobic
bacteria, that is, the decomposers, in the presence of oxygen. These nutrients
act like fertilizers and cause large-scale overgrowth of aquatic microscopic
plants such as algae. The more the plants grow in number, the more the
plants die, adding to the waste in the waterbody. More waste means more
population of decomposers, leading to the breakdown activity to release
more nutrients. Such bacterial activities and the transpiration by algae and
larger green plants consume a lot of water’s dissolved oxygen. This reduces
the amount of oxygen available to fish, ultimately leading to their death.
The eutrophication causes the waterbody to disappear. Such phenomenon
does not occur in flowing water.
10.2.3 Physical Agents
Physical agents such as suspended solids, sedimentary solids, and
temperature affect the quality of water. Some of the adverse effects of
these suspended solids are silting, clogging of water, filling of dams, and
making water cloudy and muddy. Suspended organic and mineral solids can
absorb metals and other toxins and pass them into the food chain. Thermal
pollution occurs when hot water enters a waterbody.
10.3 Water Pollution in Various Waterbodies

Two types of sources are responsible for water pollution:
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(i) Point source: A point source discharges pollutants/effluents through

a channel such as a pipe, sewer, or tunnel. Examples include factories,
sewage treatment plants, power plants, and coal mines. The point
sources are easy to identify, and so control efforts can be put in place
easily.
(ii) Non-point source: A non-point is a scattered source of water pollution
which discharges pollutants over a large area. Examples include run-
offs from agricultural fields and acid rain.
Water pollution can occur in freshwater and underground water.
10.3.1 Freshwater Pollution
Freshwater (or surface water) in the form of rivers, streams, and lakes is
present to the extent of only 0.0091% of the total global water. All four
segments of our society — urban, rural, industrial, and agricultural —
account for surface water pollution. Various processes and materials may
pollute the fresh waterbodies. Some of the sources of freshwater pollution
are listed in Table 10.2. Siltation, along with sedimentation, is a common
problem of most waterbodies. Natural deposition of silt in the form of
sediments results from sharp fluctuations in the flow of water within a
short span of time ranging between zero flow and flash floods. Sometimes,
sewage and industrial effluents bring silt into rivers, lakes, and ponds and
turn them into swampy, marshy stretches of foul-smelling land. Table 10.3
lists some of the polluted Indian rivers and the industries that causes their
pollution.
10.3.2 Groundwater Pollution

Groundwater is considered a gift of nature. More than 98% of freshwater
lies below the earth, in the form of underground water. It is the main source
of drinking water for about half of the global population.
Table 10.2 Sources of freshwater pollution

Source Contaminants
Agricultural run-off Agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides, and
fungicides)
Accidental spill of chemicals Different chemicals
Leakage from surface storage tanks or pipeline Gasoline, oil
Run-off from industrial sites such as factories, Solvents, chemicals
refineries, mines
Radioactive material-processing units Radioactive materials
Air fallout in rivers and lakes Particulates, metals, pesticides
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Water Pollution 169
Table 10.3 Some of the polluted Indian rivers and industries that cause their pollution
River Industrial sources of pollution
Bhadra (Karnataka) Paper and steel industries
Cauvery (Tamil Nadu) Tanneries, distilleries, paper and rayon mills
Chambal (Madhya Pradesh) Rayon mills, caustic soda units
Cooum (Tamil Nadu) Automobile workshops
Damodar (between Bokaro and Fertilizers, steel mills, coal washeries, and power stations
Panchet)
Ganga (at Kanpur) Chemical, metal and surgical instrument industries,
tanneries, textile mills
Godavari (Andhra Pradesh) Paper mills
Gomati (near Lucknow) Paper and pulp mills
Hooghly (near Kolkata) Power stations, paper and pulp, jute, textiles, chemicals,
paints, varnishes, metals, steel, vegetable oils, rayon and
soap, match, shellac, and polythene industries
Yamuna (near Delhi) DDT factory, Indraprastha Power Station, Mathura
Refinery
Kali (at Meerut) Sugar mills, distilleries, paints, soap, rayon, silk, yarn, tin,
and glycerine industries
Narmada (Madhya Pradesh) Paper mills
DDT – dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Groundwater gets polluted owing to seepage of domestic, industrial, and

agricultural wastes. Generally, groundwater contamination is irreversible.
This leads to degradation of water quality, such as objectionable taste,
malodour, and excessive hardness. Table 10.4 lists the sources of groundwater
pollution along with the pollutants incorporated into groundwater through
seepage.
Contamination of groundwater occurs because of seepage from industrial
effluents, agricultural run-off, refuse dumps, and septic tanks. It should
be understood that soil does not have the capacity to filter out virus,
hazardous organic chemicals, or toxic heavy metals; however, the degree
of soil contamination may be low if there is no overload of pollutants.
Table 10.4 Sources of groundwater contamination

Sources Contaminants
Domestic wastes Pathogens, nutrients, and solids
Industrial wastes Toxic heavy metals along with hazardous organic and inorganic effluents
Agricultural wastes Fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, leaches from agricultural land
containing nitrates, phosphates, and potash
Note Groundwater can also be polluted by septic tanks and refuse dumps.
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10.3.3 Marine Pollution

Oceans are believed to be the ultimate sink of pollutants that are either
directly dumped in the form of waste or reach there as run-off through
streams, canals, rivers, or accidental spills. A sizeable amount of marine
water pollution occurs near the coastlines where large cities, tanker
harbours, and industrial centres are situated. Pollution of oceans, seas,
estuaries, salt marshes, and other similar waterbodies is called marine or
ocean pollution. For the population living in coastal areas, the kinds of
pollutants encountered are sewage, municipal discharge, agricultural run-
offs, industrial effluents, and waste heat generated from industries during
cooling.
A major marine pollution is attributed to oil spills and discharges from
marine vessels, oil and grease discharge from the shipping industry, and
accidental discharge from tankers. Across the world, around 200 million
gallons of petroleum products enter the marine waters each year as a result
of extractions (from land and sea), transportation, and combustion of oil and
its products. Massive marine pollution is a caused by oil tanker accidents.
Some of such accidents are as follows:
• A Liberian tanker — Torry Canyon — was wrecked on the Ollard rock
in the UK in 1967, resulting in the discharge of about 100,000 tonnes
of oil into the sea. The resulting oil pollution affected even France.
• In 1973, the oil tanker M. V. Cosmos Pioneer broke into pieces near
Porbandar in Gujarat, India, owing to rough weather, releasing 18,000
tonnes (approximately) of light diesel oil along the Gujarat coast.
• In 1974, a US oil tanker — Transhuran — collided with the atolls of
the Kilton Island in the Laccadive Sea, discharging about 5000 tonnes
of furnace oil on the beaches.
• An oil tanker named Urquvila met with an accident in 1976 near the
Spanish coast La Covuna and discharged about 10,000 tonnes of
crude oil.
• The oil tanker Exxan Vaaldez crashed on Prince William Sound in
Alaska in 1989, discharging about 11 million gallons of oil into
Alaska’s water.
• In 1991, during Gulf War, about 300 million gallons of oil were
knowingly discharged in the Persian Gulf. The oil spill hit the Saudi
shores severely.
• The world’s worst marine pollution occurred in the US coast by the
discharge of millions of litres of oil during a drilling operation by the
IBP Company (2010). It was virtually impossible to plug the leakage.
The IBP had to pay millions of dollars to the US Government as
compensation for damages.
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Water Pollution 171
It has been found that sealed containers packed with hazardous wastes
such as poisonous chemicals and radioactive isotopes are dumped into the
seas. These drums are sometimes not properly packed or dropped at the
right place in the ocean. Sooner or later, these drums tend to leak or break
off and cause marine pollution of the worst type.
10.3.3.1 Harmful effects of marine pollution

After an oil spill, the low-boiling aromatic hydrocarbons cause the
immediate death of a number of aquatic organisms, especially in their
larval form. Some of the toxic substances evaporate into the atmosphere,
resulting in atmospheric pollution. However, some other types of chemicals
present in the oil remain afloat on the water surface. This floating oil
can coat the feathers of marine birds and some marine animals such as
seals. The oil coating, in most of the cases, drowns the animals because
of increased buoyancy. It is estimated that a few lakhs of marine birds in
the North Sea and North Atlantic regions are killed each year as a result
of oil pollution. All types of pollutants affect the marine life adversely.
Non-biodegradable pollutants biologically settle in the marine organisms,
which may ultimately reach the human body via food chains and cause
adverse health problems.
10.3.3.2 Control of oil pollution in seas

Oil spills can be avoided, to a large extent, by taking adequate measures.
The following are some of the procedures that can help control oil pollution
of seas:
• Skimming: This is the simplest method to reduce aftermaths of an
oil spill. This method should be used in the shortest possible time
after spilling has occurred; otherwise, wind will spread the oil over
a large surface and make skimming very difficult.
• Use of absorbents: Some absorbents such as polyurethane, saw dust,
and chopped straw are spread on the oil and then skimmed off.
• Burning of oil slick: Although this method is useful, it causes
extensive air and thermal pollution.
• Microorganisms: The most effective method to clean up oil pollution
is by using oil-eating bacteria. Oil-eating microbes were used in
cleaning up oil spills on the waters of Texas, the USA.
• Chemical additives: These are used to solidify oil from water surface
and then the solid material is skimmed off.
10.4 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution

Polluted water is a major cause behind the outbreak of epidemics and chronic
diseases such as typhoid, jaundice, dysentery, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, and
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hepatitis. The use of polluted water for irrigation damages crops and
decreases the agricultural yield. Polluted water reduces fertility of the soil
by killing bacteria and soil microorganisms.
Contamination of drinking water with mercury, cadmium, and nitrate
causes Minamata disease, itai-itai disease, and methaemoglobinaemia,
respectively.
10.4.1 Minamata Disease (Effect of Mercury Poisoning)

In the 1950s, more than 50 people died and a number of people were affected
in a sea coast village in Japan after eating fish contaminated with mercury.
Investigation revealed that the water of the Minamata Bay was polluted
for more than 30 years (1932–68) by an estimated 27 tonnes of mercury
compounds that were dumped by Chisso Corporation, a company located
in Kumamoto, Japan. It was found that Chisso used mercuric chloride
as a catalyst for the production of acetaldehyde, and so only non-toxic
inorganic mercury was released in the effluents. However, sediments from
the Minamata Bay were found to be rich in methylmercury chloride (toxic).
The microorganisms help biomethylation of mercury and methylmercury
chloride is formed. Being lipid soluble, this chemical found its way in
the tissues of living beings (fish). Consumption of these fish caused birth
defects and affected neural tissues, mainly in the brain. The disease caused
by mercury poisoning is called Minamata disease as it was first found to
occur in Minamata Bay in Japan.
10.4.2 Itai-itai Disease (Effect of Cadmium Poisoning)

An unusual disease, called Itai-itai disease, was reported in 1912, which
was caused by cadmium pollution of Jinzu River basin in the Toyama
prefecture in Japan. The victims, mostly women, suffered from acute pain in
the entire body; there were even more severe cases where women suffered
from broken bones while trying to move their limbs. The clinical features
were osteomalacia, accompanied by osteoporosis and multiple renal tubular

dysfunctions. The victims cried out “itai-itai” (meaning ouch-ouch) because
of pain, and so the disease was named itai-itai. Investigation revealed
the cause of disease as cadmium poisoning. About 200 people have been
officially declared as having the disease since 1969.
10.4.3 Effect of Nitrate Contamination in Drinking Water

The intake of nitrate in excessive amounts through drinking water and
from food, drugs, or other nitrate-contaminated sources reduces the
oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and damages the alveolar tissues of
lungs. Although nitrate is relatively non-toxic, it gets converted into toxic
nitrite during metabolism in the digestive canal by bacteria under high pH
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Water Pollution 173
conditions (alkaline conditions of the intestines). Nitrite, once reaching the

blood, oxidizes iron present in the haemoglobin of red blood cells (RBCs) to
form methaemoglobin, which lacks oxygen-carrying capacity. Also during
nitrate metabolism, free radicals of nitric oxide and oxygen are formed. This
leads to alveolar damage in the lungs. Intake of nitrate is severe, especially
to the infants under the age of 6 months; their digestive track has a high
pH because of low secretion of gastric juices, thus favouring conversion of
nitrate to nitrite. This leads to shortage of oxygen in the system of the infant.
This condition is called methaemoglobinaemia or “blue baby syndrome”,
and the infants are called “blue babies”.
In addition to mercury, cadmium, and nitrate, some other chemicals that
may pose a threat are fluoride, arsenic, lead, pesticides, chromium, and
cobalt.
10.4.4 Fluoride
The presence of small amount of fluoride in water (0.8 ppm) is known to
provide protection to gums and teeth. Problems arise when the concentration
of fluoride increases (Table 10.5). High fluoride concentration can cause
humped back. Its continuous consumption may result in stiffness of bone
joints, particularly the spinal cord. It may also lead to bending of legs from
knees and is known as the “knock-knee syndrome”.
10.4.5 Arsenic
Arsenic finds its way into water by dissolution of minerals and ores and
from industrial effluents. In some areas, its concentrations in groundwater
are elevated as a result of erosion from natural sources. The average daily
intake of inorganic arsenic through water is estimated to be similar to that
from food. A provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water of
0.01 mg/L has been established.
Table 10.5 Concentration of fluoride and its impacts

Concentration (ppm) Effects
0.8 Protection of gums and teeth
1.0 Mild dental fluorosis in children
1.0–1.9 Mottled teeth in children
1.9–2.0 Tooth disorder
2.0–3.0 Tooth decay
3.0–12.0 Bone disorder
15–100 Skeletal disorder, dangerous to life
Above 100 Poisonous, fatal to life
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Worldwide, the Indo–Bangladesh region is the worst affected by arsenic

contamination, infecting more than 3 billion people. In West Bengal alone,
about 55 million people are affected by arsenic poisoning. The symptoms
of arsenic poisoning appear late as internal poisoning breaks the skin at
the final stage. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended
the governments of India and Bangladesh to put arsenic-related diseases
under immediate national surveillance, giving these a status similar to that
of cancer.
In animals, arsenic affects liver, kidneys, and lungs, causing toxicity to the
biological system. In human beings, arsenic gets absorbed through the lungs
and skin. At higher concentration, As (III) compounds coagulate protein,
possibly by attacking the S-bond, retaining the secondary and tertiary
structures of proteins. Thus, the main reaction in the biological system
involves complexing of arsenic compounds with coenzymes, coagulation of
the biological protein, and uncoupling of phosphorylated sites. Table 10.6
elaborates the arsenic dosage and related effects in the biological system.
Arsenic in water is carcinogenic in nature. In the case of arsenic
poisoning, chemicals with the –SH group, which can form complexes with
As (III), are generally used as antidote, such as 2,3-dimercaptopropanol.
10.4.6 Lead
Some of the important sources of lead for biological systems are mining,
smelting, and emission from automobiles. Serious outbreaks of lead
poisoning occurred in the Western world a number of years ago. When the
concentration of lead is less than 40 mg/100 mL of blood, it is considered
normal. However, when the concentration exceeds 100 mg/100 mL of blood,
it is considered excessive and is unacceptable.
Lead deposits in bones are considered a cumulative poison. Young
children absorb 4–5 times more lead than adults. Lead is a general toxicant
that accumulates in the skeleton. Infants, children up to 6 years of age, and
pregnant women are most susceptible to its adverse health effects. Lead
also interferes with calcium metabolism, both directly and indirectly by
interfering with vitamin D metabolism. Lead is toxic to both central and
Table 10.6 Arsenic dosage and related effects in biological system

Dose Effects
Mild dose Nausea, fainting, salivation, vomiting, burning in stomach
Higher dose Diarrhoea, peripheral neuritis, hyperketosis, conjunctivitis
Chronic dose Severe gastroenteritis, loss of weight, skin lesions, loss of hair, black foot
disorder
Lethal dose Death owing to shock and vascular failure
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Water Pollution 175
peripheral nervous systems, including subencephalopathic neurological and

behavioural effects.
Most of the lead enters drinking water from plumbing in buildings.
However, replacing lead-containing plumbing and fittings with plastic pipes
can avoid lead discharge to a very large extent. Owing to the effects of
lead in the human system, the use of leaded gasoline has been banned
globally.
10.4.7 Chromium
Chromium salts are used in a number of industrial operations. Chromium
is used extensively in tanneries as a tanning agent. It is also a corrosion
inhibitor. Chromium, in its hexavalent form, is highly toxic to aquatic
organisms and human beings. A number of diseases such as hypertension,
heart diseases, as well as lung and skin cancer can be attributed to chromium
exposure.
10.4.8 Cobalt
Cobalt poisoning may result in nausea, vomiting, and various psychological
abnormalities. Cobalt’s toxic effects include loss of weight and appetite,
dysentery, diarrhoea, conjunctivitis, and discolouration of the skin. High
cobalt concentration in the humans can increase coproporphyrin in urine,
lead to pathological changes in retina, choroid, and optic nerves, and damage
retinal and ganglion cells.
10.4.9 Pesticides
Being broad-spectrum compounds, pesticides kill or harm many species,
including non-target forms of life. For example, carbaryl, an insecticide
used against crop pests, is lethal to honey bees, which are essential for
pollination. Toxaphene causes deformed backbones in fish. DDT or its
breakdown products affect the breeding process of birds. Many marine

and freshwater organisms absorb DDT particles from their surroundings.
In fact, DDT passes through the food chain and bioaccumulates in fish.
Consumption of these fish severely affects humans.
Summary
• Water pollution is the degradation of the quality of water, which
makes it unsafe for humans, animals, and aquatic life.
• Water has a high value of latent heat, and this moderates the
temperature of the biosphere.
• The solubility of water is responsible for the survival of aquatic
life.
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• Pollutants in water can be biological agents, chemical agents, and

physical agents.
• Excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture results in the eutrophication
of lakes.
• Sources of freshwater pollution include agricultural run-off, accidental
spills of chemicals, and effluents from industrial sites such as factories,
refineries, and mines.
• Industrial sources of freshwater pollution include paper and steel
industries, tanneries, rayon mills, power stations, sugar mills,
pesticide factories, and so on.
• Groundwater is polluted by domestic, agricultural, and industrial
wastes.
• Marine pollution results primarily from oil spills and discharges
from marine vessels, shipping industry, and accidental discharge
from oil tankers.
• Marine pollution is responsible for the death of a number of aquatic
organisms.
• Marine pollution can be controlled by incorporation of various
processes such as skimming, use of absorbents, burning of oil slick,
oil-consuming microorganisms, and using chemical additives.
• Polluted water is behind the outbreak of epidemics and chronic
diseases such as typhoid, jaundice, dysentery, diarrhoea, tuberculosis,
and hepatitis.
• Contamination of mercury, cadmium, and nitrate in drinking water
causes Minamata disease, itai-itai disease, and methaemoglobinaemia,
respectively.
• Other contaminants that affect drinking water include fluoride,
arsenic, lead, chromium, cobalt, and pesticides.
Exercise
1. Which of the following statements are correct about water?
(a) Only about 1% water is available as potable water.
(b) The high value of latent heat of water moderates the temperature
of biosphere.
(c) The solubility of oxygen in water is responsible for the survival
of aquatic life.
(d) Rapid industrialization is responsible for water pollution.
(e) All are correct.
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Water Pollution 177
2. The most serious pollution in water is

(a) Biological agents (b) Chemical agents
(c) Physical agents (d) All of these
3. The most dominant source of freshwater pollution is caused by
(a) Agricultural run-off
(b) Accidental spill of chemicals
(c) Radioactive material-processing units
(d) Leakage of surface storage tanks
4. Groundwater is contaminated by
(a) Domestic wastes (b) Industrial wastes
(c) Agricultural wastes (d) All of these
5. For controlling oil pollution in seas, the most harmful process is
(a) Skimming (b) Using absorbers
(c) Burning of slick (d) Microorganisms
Answers
1. (e) 2. (a) 3. (c)
4. (d) 5. (c)
1. Define water pollution.
2. How is the temperature of the biosphere maintained?
3. What is the most serious water pollution?
4. Write a note on eutrophication.
5. What are the sources of freshwater pollution, groundwater pollution,
and ocean pollution?
6. How can pollution caused because of oil spills in seas be controlled?
7. Discuss the harmful effects of water pollution.
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Chapter
11
Sources of
Water Pollution
11.1 Introduction
Water is one of the few natural resources that are essential for life on the
earth. However, its quality has severely deteriorated because of pollutants
that are introduced into waterbodies from different sources, such as sewage
and domestic wastes, industrial effluents, agricultural discharge, detergents,
toxic metals, radioactive materials, and thermal pollutants.
11.2 Sewage and Domestic Wastes

Sewage and domestic wastes combined constitute about 70%–75% of water
pollution. Common wastes include human excreta and wastes produced
by households and food-processing plants. These wastes also contain soap,
detergents, metals, garden wastes, and so on. Mostly untreated, particularly
in developing countries, these wastes are discharged into waterbodies such
as ponds, streams, and rivers. As a result of large amounts of such wastes,
these waterbodies lose their self-regulating capacity that leads to severe

health problems.
Pollution caused by sewage and domestic wastes has considerably
increased owing to increase in population and uncontrolled discharges
into waterbodies, particularly rivers. It makes the water become saline. The
temperature of the water also increases, which decreases the solubility of
gases such as oxygen. The main contributor of water pollution is municipal
wastes, which are not treated before they are discharged in the waterbodies.
The sewage contains trace quantities of toxic metals, such as Cu, Cr, Zn,
Mn, Pb, and Ni, which are deposited as suspended materials, called sludge,
at the bottom. Liquid wastes contain ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl–,
NO2– , SO42−, PO43−, NH4+, and HCO 3− in dissolved form.
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11.2.1 Harmful Effects of Sewage and Domestic Wastes

Sewage acts as an ideal medium for pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa growth. Vibrio cholerae present in sewage causes cholera. Salmonella
typhosa causes typhoid, and Shigella dysenteriae causes bacillary dysentery.
The discharge of sewage and domestic wastes into waterbodies promotes
the growth of microorganisms that cause chronic diseases in humans. This
leads to spread of water-borne diseases such as viral hepatitis, polio, cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, and amoebiasis.
11.3 Industrial Effluents

Industrial effluents discharged into waterbodies contain toxic chemicals and
hazardous compounds including phenols, aldehydes, ketones, amines, and
cyanides. Besides, they also contain metallic wastes, plasticizers, corrosive
alkalis, oils, grease, dye, non-biodegradable matter, radioactive materials,
and thermal pollutants from some industries. Some of the important water-
polluting industries are pharmaceutical, brewery, tannery, dyeing, textile,
paper, plastic, chemical, metallurgy, fertilizer, pesticide, coal, cement, steel,
paints, rubber, electroplating, sugar and oil refinery. A few of the major
types of pollutants introduced into the waterbodies are namely heavy
metals and organic chemicals. These are non-degradable and discharged
into the waterbodies by the following sources:
• Geological weathering of rocks
• Industrial processing of ores and minerals (the discarded matter
contains heavy metals)
• Chromium used in tanneries
• Cadmium and copper used in electroplating and batteries
• Nickel and mercury used in paints and dyes
• Excretory products of living organisms
The oxidizing and fermentable matter present in sewage causes depletion

of dissolved oxygen in the waterbodies, resulting in severe damage to
aquatic species. Depletion of oxygen is caused by biological oxidation of
organic matter present in the sewage. This increases the biological oxygen
demand (BOD) which is the amount of oxygen required for biological
oxidation by microbes in any unit volume of water. It is proportional to the
amount of organic wastes (oxidizing organic matter) present in water.
The suspended matter present in sewage blankets the waterbody.
This interferes with the spawning of fish and decreases aquatic biota.
Sewage and domestic wastes introduce nutrients such as phosphates and
nitrates in the waterbodies, which become eutrophic. This phenomenon
is called eutrophication. The only solution to pollution caused by sewage
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Sources of Water Pollution 181
and domestic wastes is the treatment of the waste before discharge into
the waterbodies. The following industries are responsible for the major
pollutants in the waterbodies:
• Caustic-chlorine industry: This industry is responsible for the
discharge of the deadly substance “mercury” in the waterbodies.
For details, see Chapter 6 (Section 6.2).
• Paper and pulp industry: Effluents or wastes from this industry
are responsible for the pollution of the waterbodies. The pollutants
include suspended matter and dissolved organic substances. It is best
to use waste paper for the manufacture of paper. See also Chapter 6
(Section 6.9).
• Textile and dyeing industry: Wastewater produced in this industry
contains particulate matter and starch. The dyes used in the textile
industry are discharged in waterbodies. Azo and benzidine dyes
used in the production of textiles may cause cancer. Azo dyes have
also been found to release harmful amines that cause skin diseases.
The pollutants from textile production include zinc, sulphide, or
copper salts, which are non-biodegradable.
To know about the discharge of other pollutants from other industries,
see Chapter 6.
11.4 Agricultural Discharge
It is well known that agrochemicals (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers) are used in agricultural practice to improve yield and get better
crops. The discharges (carried by rain) from the agrochemicals enter the
waterbodies and cause pollution.
Most of the agrochemicals are responsible for a number of harmful effects
on humans and plants. For example, excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer
may lead to accumulation of nitrates in water, which on consumption gets
reduced to nitrite (which is toxic in nature) by intestinal bacteria. The

nitrites, on entering the blood stream, react with haemoglobin to form
methaemoglobin. This causes methaemoglobinaemia in which damage is
caused to the respiratory and vascular systems. Nitrite is particularly more
harmful to children as it causes blue baby syndrome and may result in
death.
The presence of excess fertilizers in waterbodies may cause eutrophication.
It leads to depletion of oxygen because of excessive algal growth, resulting
in increase in the BOD of water. It also leads to the death of fish and other
aquatic life. It is best to use biopesticides, bioinsecticides, bioherbicides, and
biofertilizers in place of chemicals.
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11.5 Detergents
Detergents are substitutes for soap and consist of surfactant (10%–30%),
builder (15%), and other ingredients. Unlike soaps, detergents can be used
in hard water. However, detergents contain a number of pollutants that
pollute the waterbodies. Detergents contain surface-active agents and also
contribute to phosphate of sodium, sodium sulphates, and other builders.
It is best to use biodegradable detergents. Such detergents contain enzymes
that make them biodegradable (see also Chapter 6, Section 6.15).
11.6 Toxic Metals
Toxic metals are discharged into waterbodies by the mining industry,
metallurgy industry, chemical industry, leather industry, sugar industry,
distilleries, battery industry, and thermal power plants. Heavy metals in
the pure state may not be toxic in the aquatic environment. However, the
combination of heavy metals with salts or organic compounds is very
toxic. Thus, for example, mercury discharged into waterbodies from the
chlor-alkali industry and electric and electronic industry is not harmful
in the pure state. However, in aquatic environment, it gets converted to
methyl mercury (the methyl group comes from the methane released by
bacteria during anaerobic respiration). Methyl mercury is extremely toxic.
It is absorbed by fish and concentrated to higher level (the process is called
biomagnification). Methyl mercury can cause fatal poisoning. A typical
example is Minamata disease in Japan. Table 11.1 gives the effects of metal
pollution on humans.
Table 11.1 Effects of metal pollution on humans
Metals Effects
Arsenic (As) Disturbed peripheral circulation, mental disturbance, cirrhosis of liver, lung
cancer, ulcers in gastrointestinal tract, damage to kidney

Barium (Ba) Excessive salivation, vomiting, diarrhoea, paralysis, colic pain
Cadmium Retardation of growth, diarrhoea, deformation of bones (itai-itai disease), injury
to central nervous system and liver, hypertension
Cobalt (Co) Diarrhoea, low blood pressure, irritation of lungs, bone deformation, paralysis
Chromium (Cr) Gastrointestinal ulceration, affects central nervous system, cancer, nephritis
Copper (Cu) Hypertension, uremia, coma
Lead (Pb) Anaemia, vomiting, loss of appetite, convulsion, affects brain and kidneys
Mercury (Hg) Abdominal pain, headache, diarrhoea, chest pain, haemolysis
Selenium (Sc) Damage to liver, kidney, spleen, fever, nervousness, vomiting, low blood
pressure
Zinc (Zn) Vomiting, cramps, renal damage
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11.7 Radioactive Materials
Radioactive pollutants enter the waterbodies from various sources such as
nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, nuclear tests, nuclear installations,
and tailings from the processing of radioactive minerals.
Hazards from radioactivity arise owing to the deposition of radionuclides
in body organs. The radionuclides deliver a dose of radiation. On entering
the waterbodies, radionuclides disrupt the ecocycling process, enter the
food chain, and disrupt the metabolic pathway. Different radionuclides
affect different organs (Table 11.2). The most lethal radioactive substance is
plutonium, which is produced in certain types of nuclear reactors. It must
be stored in a safe place.
11.8 Thermal Pollution
Heat is a thermal pollutant and its release into the atmosphere or waterbodies
creates thermal pollution. Thermal pollution occurs when waste heat is
released into a waterbody. For example, metal smelters, processing units,
petroleum refineries, paper mills, food-processing factories, and chemical-
manufacturing plants use water for cooling purpose. This water gets heated
and is released into the waterbodies, thereby increasing the temperature
of the waterbodies. The natural causes of thermal pollution include forest
fires and volcanic eruptions, which cause sudden release of heat into the
environment.
11.8.1 Effects of Thermal Pollution

• If the temperature of oceans is raised by even 1 degree, the
environment becomes lethal to sensitive organisms.
• The release of heated water into a waterbody changes its temperature,
leading to decrease in the concentration of dissolved oxygen. This has
detrimental effects on aquatic life.
Table 11.2 Effect of radionuclides on different organs

Radionuclide Organ affected
Radium-226 Bones
Radon-222 Lungs
Iodine-131 Thyroid
Krypton-85 Ovaries
Cobalt-60 Liver
Potassium-42 Muscles
Sulphur-35 Skin
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11.8.2 Control Measures for Thermal Pollution

The solution to the problem of thermal pollution lies in retaining heated
water and effluents discharged by power plants and other industrial units
in a holding unit and cooling it before discharging into waterbody. It is,
however, best to reuse the cooled water for the same purpose. The heat
generated from industries can also be used for warming buildings during
cold season.
Another method of controlling thermal pollution is to use a cooling
tower. Most of the heat transfer occurs through evaporation. The warm
water is sprayed downwards over vertical sheets or bottles, where the water
flows in thin films. A natural draft of air is maintained to cool the water.
Summary
• Water is affected by pollutants introduced in waterbodies from
different sources.
• Different pollutants are introduced from sewage and domestic wastes,
industrial effluents, agricultural discharge, detergents, toxic metals,
radioactive materials, and thermal pollution.
• Sewage and domestic wastes combined constitute about 70%–75% of
water pollution.
• Sewage is an ideal medium for the growth of pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa. These are responsible for waterborne diseases
such as viral hepatitis, polio, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
• Industrial effluents contain toxic chemicals and hazardous compounds,
which are extremely harmful for human health.
• Agricultural discharges result when rainwater washes agrochemicals
from fields into waterbodies.
• Nitrate fertilizers used in agriculture are responsible for blue baby
syndrome in children.
• The presence of excess fertilizers in waterbodies may cause
eutrophication, resulting in an increase in the BOD of water and
leading to the death of fish and other aquatic life.
• Detergents (unlike soap) can be used in hard water for cleaning. These
contribute to phosphates in the waterbodies. Being non-degradable,
detergents are harmful.
• Toxic metals are introduced into waterbodies from various industrial
effluents. These are extremely harmful for health. For example,
mercury causes Minamata disease and cadmium causes itai-itai
disease.
• Thermal pollution is caused by the heat released from natural and
other sources. It is lethal to sensitive organisms.
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Exercise
1. Among all pollutants, the most hazardous pollutant is
(a) Sewage and domestic wastes
(b) Agricultural discharge
(c) Toxic metals
(d) Radioactive materials
2. Waterborne diseases result owing to the discharge of ______ in
waterbodies.
(a) Sewage and domestic wastes (b) Industrial effluents
(c) Radioactive materials (d) Toxic metals
3. Industrial effluents include
(a) Processing of ores and minerals
(b) Tanneries
(c) Electroplating industries
(d) Weathering of rocks
(e) All of these
4. The metallic pollutant that retards growth is
(a) Barium (b) Cadmium
(c) Chromium (d) Mercury
5. The most lethal radioactive substance is
(a) Radium-226 (b) Iodine-131
(c) Potassium-42 (d) Plutonium
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (e)
4. (b) 5. (d)
1. How can pollution caused by sewage and domestic wastes be
prevented?
2. What are the effects of agricultural discharge in waterbodies?
(a) Radioactive materials
(b) Thermal pollution
(c) Toxic metals
(d) Industrial effluents
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Chapter
12 Management of Water
12.1 Introduction
The most important aspect of water management is conservation of the
already available water. It is well known that almost three-quarters of the
earth’s surface is covered with water and only 3% of all water is freshwater.
However, only 1% of all water on this planet is available for use. Of this, 73%
is used for agricultural purpose, 20% is used for industrial purpose, and
the rest is used for domestic purpose.
Water is most important, next only to air, for sustenance of life. It is,
however, becoming a scarce commodity. Its scarcity threatens us all. The
United Nations Population Fund stated in 2001 that in the next 25 years,
about one-third of the world’s population would experience severe scarcity
of water. As of today, more than 1 billion people do not have access to safe
drinking water.
The scarcity of safe drinking water has become more severe because
of population growth, industrialization, and urbanization. This is further
compounded by the fact that more than 90% of the sewage produced,
particularly in developing countries, is discharged into fresh waterbodies
(rivers, ponds, and lakes), rendering the water in these waterbodies unfit for
human consumption. For these reasons, it is necessary to conserve water.
The following strategies can be used for water conservation:
• Treatment of sewage and domestic wastes
• Treatment of wastewater from industries at source
• Rainwater harvesting
• Economical use of water
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12.2 Treatment of Sewage and Domestic Wastes

Sewage and domestic wastes are responsible for most of the water pollution
(see Chapter 11, Section 11.2). Thus, these pollutants must be treated before
being discharged into waterbodies. Wastewater, particularly municipal
wastes (including sewage and domestic wastes), is treated in three stages.
In the first stage, known as primary or preliminary treatment, sewage is
passed through a series of screens to remove most of the floating materials.
By this process, all non-biodegradable solids such as rocks, sand, grit,
plastic, and metal parts are separated.
The filtered water is then passed through a grit chamber, which is
packed with sand and small stones. This procedure removes suspended dirt
particles. Next, the resulting filtered water is passed through a sedimentation
tank in which the particulate matter settles down at the bottom in the form
of sludge. It may be helpful to add alum, which hastens the settling process.
The sludge is then removed and can be used as manure after processing.
The second stage (known as secondary treatment or biological oxidation
process) involves aeration of the filtered water (from the first stage); in this
treatment, some sludge is added from the final (second) sedimentation
tank. The sludge contains aerobic bacteria, which break down the organic
pollutants in the water. This treatment takes several hours. Subsequently, the
water is taken to the sedimentation tank in which most of the sludge settles
down. The total sludge is subjected to microbial digestion, and the evolved
methane gas is used as fuel. Finally, water from the sedimentation tank is
treated in disinfection tanks, usually by chlorine, to remove disease-causing
organisms. In some countries, ozone is used to sterilize the water.
The combination of first and second steps (primary and secondary
treatments) constitutes the complete treatment. This water can either be
discharged in the waterbodies (from which municipalities draw water) or
can be subjected to tertiary treatment (the final treatment). During tertiary
treatment, highly soluble salts are removed as precipitates by adding
flocculating agents or alum. Addition of lime makes the water alkaline,

which precipitates the phosphates. A more advanced tertiary treatment
involves reverse osmosis and disinfection with ultraviolet rays. This treated
water can be used for drinking purpose.
12.3 Treatment of WasteWater from Industries at Source

Most industries use water in different stages. They should use new
techniques for reducing their water requirement. The waste or used water
should be treated at the source. After appropriate treatment, the wastewater
can be used in either the same industry or discharged into waterbodies
(if not required for reuse).
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Management of Water 189
12.4 Rainwater Harvesting
Rain occur when water from the waterbodies, such as oceans, evaporate
and then get condensed. In fact, by this procedure, sea water gets converted
into clean water, provided it is harvested. Rainwater harvesting has been
practiced in India since ancient times. It involves collecting rainwater
in huge underground tanks. In this process, a suitable drainage system
from rooftops has to be made so that the rainwater gets collected in the
underground tanks. Precaution has to be taken to prevent pollution of
rainwater on its way to the storage tanks. For small domestic systems,
ferrocement tanks are used. The collected rainwater can be then used for
domestic (except for drinking) and agricultural needs.
12.5 Economical Use of Water

Only about 1% of all water on this planet is available for human use. Water
has become a scarce commodity, particularly owing to tremendous increase
in population and wastage of water. In fact, each and every drop of water
should be conserved and used economically. The economical use of water is
an important step in the management or conservation of water. Water can
be economically used in agriculture and also in domestic use.
12.5.1 Use of Water in Agriculture

The agricultural sector is the largest user of water. Of the 1% water available
for human consumption, about 73% is used for agricultural purposes. By
using improved irrigation systems, consumption of water in agriculture can
be reduced by 25%–30%. The following measures can be taken to conserve
water in agriculture:
• Reducing seepage and evaporation of water by using covered or lined
canals.
• Using computer monitoring and scheduled release for maximum

efficiency.
• Irrigating crops when evaporation loss is minimum, preferably at
night or early morning.
• Using improved irrigation systems such as sprinklers or drip
irrigation. The efficiency is 95% for drip irrigation and 75% for
sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation involves laying of water pipes
(having small holes) through the agricultural land. The small holes
give sufficient water to the soil near the roots, reducing the amount
of water used. In sprinkler irrigation, water is sprinkled using water
jets moving in different directions in the fields, resulting in the use
of less water.
• Developing crops that require less water.
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12.5.2 Domestic Use of Water

Approximately 10% of freshwater is used for domestic purposes, such as
washing clothes, bathing, and other purposes. The amount of water used
for domestic purposes can be considerably reduced by using the following
guidelines:
• Using more efficient bathroom fixtures such as low-flow toilets that
release 5 L of water per flush instead of the standard 20 L per flush.
In fact, flush systems that release low or more amount of water
depending on the requirement can be used.
• Using low-flow shower heads that deliver less but sufficient water.
• Turning the water source off when not needed during brushing teeth
or shaving.
• Fixing all leaks at the earliest.
• Reducing water use by employing washing machines and
dishwashers.
• Watering lawns and plants during late afternoon, night, or early
morning when evaporation loss is minimum.
• Watering plants, washing utensils, or cleaning floors with the leftover
water from the reverse osmosis system used in households.
12.6 Desalination of Sea water

The oceans constitute about 97.2% of the total global water. However, the
water is saline and contains dissolved salts to the extent of about 3.5%. A
cubic metre of sea water contains approximately 40 kg of salts. Sea water
cannot be used for human consumption or agriculture.
However, it has been found that some plants (particularly Salicornia
species) thrive on saline water. Scientists at the University of Arizona and
the Archer Denials Midland have investigated Salicornia oil extracted from
the seeds. This oil has been found to be an excellent quality vegetable
oil, which can be used in food and cosmetics. The biomass left after oil
extraction contains 42% protein. For the growth of these plants, fertilizers
are not required as sea water contains sufficient nutrients.
In general, sea water cannot be used for all purposes and has to be
desalinated. A number of processes are in use in different parts of the globe
where sea water is desalinated and rendered fit for human consumption.
These processes require a large amount of energy and, hence, the cost of
water becomes high. Desalination of sea water can be carried out by reverse
osmosis. In this process, sea water is separated from the dissolved salts by
making it flow through a semipermeable membrane under applied pressure
in excess of the normal osmotic pressure. The clear water (desalinated water)
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passes through and the dissolved salts are retained in the semipermeable
membrane. It is not possible to use this process on a large scale owing to
high costs.
An important process of desalination involves the use of solar energy
for which methods and equipment have been developed. The process
involves focusing sunlight on a comparatively small amount of water in a
suitable container. The sun’s energy is focused by using mirrors. The water
gets evaporated and converted into steam which is condensed into water.
The process is basically distillation. Distilled water is prepared using this
process.
Rainwater harvesting can also be regarded as desalination of sea water.
As already stated in Section 12.4, rain occurs when the energy of sun
evaporates sea water. By this process also, the sea water is converted into
clean water. Water can be collected in the case of floods in rivers, which
can be used subsequently.
12.7 Water Quality Parameters

Depending on the usage, water must have the right parameters. For example,
if water is to be used for cleaning purposes, no special treatment is required
and it is not necessary to judge any parameter. On the other hand, if water
has to be used for washing clothes, it should be ascertained that it is soft.
Hard water consumes a lot of detergents (soap), and also it cannot be used
in boilers as it leads to the formation of scales. For drinking purposes, water
should be pure and free from any pollutants. For pharmaceutical industry,
water must be free from any dissolved salts. Knowing the quality of water
helps in determining the water usage. Physical parameters and maximum
contaminant level have been prescribed by different regulatory bodies.
Tables 12.1 and 12.2 give the standards for industrial and drinking water
as prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
Table 12.1 BIS of water for industrial and drinking purposes
Physical parameter BIS category

Colour Colourless
Odour Odourless
Taste Light, sour-sweet
pH 6–8.5
Specific conductance 300 µmho/cm
Dissolved oxygen 4–6 ppm
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Table 12.2 Maximum contaminant level permissible for potable water

Contaminant Maximum level (ppm) as per BIS
Chloride 600
Sulphur 1000
Cyanide 0.0001
Fluoride 3
Nitrate + nitrite 12
Phosphate 0.1
Calcium 100
Magnesium 30
Barium 1
Copper 1
Arsenic 0.002
Lead 0.1
Iron (filterable) 0.3
Chromium 0.05
Zinc 0.05
Pesticides 0.005
Total bacterial count 1 × 106
The quality of water is mainly judged by three parameters: dissolved

oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand
(COD). Besides these, some other parameters are also useful for determining
the quality of water. These include alkalinity, most probable number (MPN),
total solids, oxidation state, transparency, silica content, hardness, dissolved
inorganic impurities, toxic metals, and microbial contaminants in sewage.
12.7.1 Dissolved Oxygen
Oxygen is soluble in water to the extent of 14.6 mg/L at 0°C and about
7.0 mg/L at 35°C under 1 atmospheric pressure. Dissolved oxygen in water is

essential for aquatic life. A minimum of 4 ppm dissolved oxygen is necessary
for aquatic species. In water, the source of oxygen is atmospheric oxygen. It
is also produced by aquatic plants through photosynthesis. Depending on
the dissolved oxygen content in water, it is possible to decide whether the
water is suitable for aquatic life, industrial usage, or public distribution.
Dissolved oxygen in water can be determined by Winkler’s method,
which involves treatment of water with a solution of MnSO4, NaOH, KI,
and NaN3. The reaction of MnSO4 and NaOH gives Mn (OH)2, which reacts
with dissolved oxygen in water to give Mn(OH)3.
MnSO4 + 2NaOH Æ MN (OH)2 + Na2SO4 (i)
White ppt.
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4Mn(OH)2 + O2 + H2O → 4Mn (OH)3 (ii)

Brown ppt.
The addition of H2SO4 converts Mn(OH)3 into MnSO4 and oxygen is

liberated.
4Mn(OH)3 + 4H2SO4 Æ 4MnSO4 + 10H2O + 2(O) (iii)
The liberated oxygen is treated with KI solution liberating equivalent
amount of iodine.
4KI + 2H2SO4 + 2(O) Æ 2K2SO4 + 2H2O + 2I2 (iv)
The liberated iodine is estimated by titration against standardized
sodium thiosulphate solution using starch as indicator.
4Na2S2O3 + 2I2 Æ 2Na2S4O6 + 4NaI (v)
From Equations (iii) and (v), it can be said that
Number of moles of Na2S2O3 4
 ____________________________
           = __
     (vi)
Number of moles of O2 1
M1V1 4 M1V1
or  _____  
= __
      or M 2 = _____
     
  (vii)
M 2V2 1 4V2
where M 1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of Na 2S2O3 solution,

respectively; V2 is the volume of the water sample; and M 2 is the molarity
of the dissolved oxygen in the water sample. Therefore,
Concentration of dissolved oxygen in water sample = M 2 × Molar mass of
O2 × 1000
= 32,000 M 2
Substituting the value of M 2 from Equation (vii), we get concentration
of dissolved oxygen in the water sample
M1V1
= _____
    
 
× 32,000
4V2
8000 [Molarity  of Na2S2O3 solution/Volume of Na2S2O3 solution]

= ___________________________________________________________
                 
Volume of water sample
12.7.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Biochemical oxygen demand is defined as the standardized measurement
of the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms for the biological
oxidation of organic matter under aerobic conditions to CO2 and H2O at
20°C over a period of 5 days. The result obtained is called five-day BOD
and is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water (mg/L). The
oxidation is represented as follows:
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Microorganism
CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O
Aerobic condition
+ Bacterial cell
Organic matter DO
The five-day BOD analysis is a standard test. The BOD values of some
water samples from different sources are given in Table 12.3.
The method for determining BOD involves measurement of the amount
of oxygen consumed by a sample of known volume. The water sample is
collected in an airtight bottle and incubated at a specific temperature for
5 days. The dissolved oxygen is measured initially and after incubation,
and the BOD is computed from the difference between the initial and final
dissolved oxygen values.
12.7.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand

The chemical oxygen demand (like BOD) is also a measure of the amount
of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter. The oxidation is affected
by chemical oxidizing agents such as K 2Cr2O7. The unused K 2Cr2O7 is
determined by back titration with a suitable reagent such as Mohr’s salt.
The amount of K2Cr2O7 is determined by subtraction.
The amount of oxygen used for the oxidation can be calculated from the
strength of K2Cr2O7 consumed as per the following equation:
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 Æ K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3(O)

The results are expressed in terms of the amount of oxygen (in ppm)
required to oxidize the contaminants. On the basis of COD status, the
quality of water can be assured (Table 12.4).
Table 12.3 BOD values of water from different sources

BOD (mg/L) Source of water

1 Very clean water
2 Clean water
3 Fairly clean water
5 Not used for drinking and pharmaceutical preparations
10 Contaminated water
15 Unfit for fish production
150 Domestic sewage discharge
200 Wastewater from industries
350 Wastewater from paper industry
1000 Wastewater from food-processing units
2000 Discharge from dairies
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Table 12.4 COD status of some water samples

COD (in mg/L) Status
0–5 Very clean water used for drinking
5–20 Fairly clean water
20–100 Unfit for drinking but can be used for washing and agriculture
The determination of COD suffers from the drawback that aromatic

hydrocarbon derivatives are not easily oxidized by the oxidizing agent used.
So their presence cannot be ascertained.
12.7.4 Alkalinity
Water becomes alkaline owing to the presence of hydroxide, carbonate, and
bicarbonate ions. Besides, the presence of borate, silicate, and phosphate ions
also contributes to alkalinity. The alkalinity of water is a measure of its
capacity to neutralize acids. Determination of alkalinity is helpful for using
appropriate amount of chemicals in water and wastewater treatment. For
irrigation, highly alkaline water is unsuitable. The presence of bicarbonate
or carbonate in water makes it unsafe for use in boilers because of the
formation of salts.
The alkalinity may be bicarbonate alkalinity (Ab), carbonate alkalinity
(Ac), or hydrate alkalinity (Ah), depending on the presence of HCO3– , CO 32–,
or OH– ions, respectively. The alkalinity of water is determined by titrating
it with a mineral and using methyl orange as the indicator.
12.7.5 Most Probable Number

Polluted water with organic waste contains high population of bacteria such
as Escherichia coli and coliforms. Both of these are determined by the MPN
method. Coliforms are normally present in human intestines and are not
harmful. However, their presence is an indication of the presence of human
waste in polluted water, which may contain other harmful substances.

Polluted water has high MPN value.
12.7.6 Total Solids
Total solid is the amount of non-volatile substances present in water and
is expressed in milligram per kilogram (mg/kg). For determining the total
solids in water, calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are converted to
carbonates. In addition to the total solids, there are three other types of
solids: fixed residue solid, mineral residue solid, and sulphate solid.
Fixed residue solid is determined by calcining total solids for about
15 min (800°C). The residue obtained is the fixed residue solid content.
Mineral residue includes all anions and cations, including CO32−, Al2O3,
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Fe2O3, and SiO2 in water. Treatment of total solids with concentrated H2SO4
gives corresponding sulphates, the total amount of which is the sulphate
solid.
12.7.7 Oxidation State
The presence of organic matter in water is represented by oxidability and is
expressed in milligrams of oxygen required to oxidize the organic compound
in 1 kg of water (mg/kg). It can also be expressed by the amount of KMnO4
(mg/L) used to oxidize organic substances. As complete oxidation of all
organic compounds is not possible under reaction conditions, oxidability
does not represent the total content of all organic compounds.
12.7.8 Transparency
Transparency is represented by the concentration of suspended fine particles
that can be determined through the weight method by using fine filter
papers. Also known as turbidity, it can be determined through the type
method by the height (cm) of the column of water in a glass tube, through
which it is possible to infer printing or by the cross method, in which two
crossed black lines (1 mm thick) are seen on a white paper placed at the
bottom of the glass tube.
12.7.9 Silica Content

It is the concentration of silicic acid, H2SiO2, present in water. Its concentration
in natural water varies from 5 to 40 mg/L. Water containing silica cannot be
used in boilers because of the formation of silicate scales. It can be removed
from water by using ion exchangers.
12.7.10 Hardness
Water from most of the sources contains variable amounts of dissolved
solids such as Mg(HCO3)2, Ca(HCO3)2, and their sulphates and chlorides.
Water that does not give lather with soap is called hard water. Such water
cannot be used in laundry work and for generating steam in boilers. Water
for the pharmaceutical industry, dairy, laundry, and boilers must be soft
water. Water that gives lather easily with soap is called soft water.
In hard water, soap reacts with soluble Ca or Mg salts to form a white
precipitate, which results in the loss of soap and reduces the cleaning
action.
2C17H35 COO–Na+ + CaCl2 Æ (C17H35 COO)2 Ca Ø + 2NaCl

Sodium stearate Hard Calcium stearate
(soap) water
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C15H31 SO–3 Na++ CaCl2 Æ (C15H31 SO3)2 Ca Ø + 2NaCl

Sodium alkyl Hard Calcium alkane
sulphates water sulphates
(detergent)
Soft water contains sodium carbonate and bicarbonate and does not
contribute to hardness. Depending on the nature of the salts present, the
hardness of water is of two types: (i) temporary hardness or carbonate
hardness and (ii) permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness.
(i) Temporary or carbonate hardness: This is caused by the presence
of Ca or Mg bicarbonates and can be removed by boiling, when
bicarbonates form insoluble carbonates.
D
Ca(HCO3)2 Æ CaCO3 Ø + H2O + CO2 ≠
Soluble Insoluble
D MgCO Ø + H O + CO ≠
Mg(HCO3)2 Æ 3 2 2
Soluble Insoluble
Temporary hardness can also be removed by adding calculated

quantities of lime (Clark’s method). However, addition of too much
lime makes the water hard again.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Æ 2CaCO3Ø + 2H2O
Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Æ MgCO3Ø + CaCO3 + 2H2O

(ii) Permanent or non-carbonate hardness: As already stated, permanent
hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved salts such as Mg and
Ca bicarbonates, sulphates, and chlorides. Such hardness cannot
be removed by boiling. In fact, total hardness is the sum total of
temporary hardness (carbonate hardness) and permanent hardness
(non-carbonate hardness). For the removal of permanent hardness,

water must be first boiled to remove temporary hardness. Soft water
should be used in industries such as textile, sugar, paper, laundry,
bakery, and pharmaceutical.
12.7.10.1 Water softening

The process of removing hardness of water is called softening of water. The
following methods can be used:
(i) Lime soda process: This process involves determination of the
hardness of water and treatment with calculated quantities of slaked
lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda ash (Na2CO3). The following reactions take
place:
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Temporary hardness removed

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Æ 2CaCO3Ø + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Æ MgCO3Ø + CaCO3Ø + 2H2O
Permanent hardness removed
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 Æ CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2Ø
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Æ CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2Ø
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 Æ 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4
FeSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Æ Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4
Fe(OH)2 + H2O + ½ O2 Æ 2Fe(OH)3 Ø
The lime treatment can be done in cold (this process takes longer
time) or in hot (80–150°C) conditions.
(ii) Permutit process: Hard water is softened by passing it through
a column of zeolites, which are of natural origin (e.g. natrolite,
Na 2O·Al 2O3·SiO2·H 2O, and analcine, Na 2O·Al 2O3·4SiO2·H 2O) or
synthetic (e.g. permutit, Na 2O·Al2O3· nSiO2·xH2O, where n = 5–13
and x = 3–4). On passing hard water through a column of permutit,
the sodium ions in permutit are exchanged with cations (Ca2+, Mg2+)
present in the hard water. Thus, the water becomes free of Ca and Mg
salts. The process removes both temporary and permanent hardness.
When Na in the zeolite is replaced with Ca and Mg, the zeolite
is said to be exhausted. It can be regenerated by washing zeolite
with a concentrated solution of NaCl. The obtained soft water is
suitable for laundry but not for boilers. This process cannot be used
for treating acidic wastes because under acidic conditions, permutit
disintegrates.
(iii) Ion exchange process: This process is useful for removing both
cationic and anionic impurities in water. The method involves
passing water through a cation exchanger (e.g. resin/SO3– H +), which

exchanges cations (M+) in the impure water with H+ of the resin.
Resin/SO3–H+ + M+ Æ Resin/SO3–M+ + H+
Cation Cation
exchange resin (in hard water)
Subsequently, water is passed through an anion exchanger (resin/N+OH–)

in which the anions, X–, present in the impure water are exchanged with
hydroxide ions (OH–) of the resin.
Resin/N+OH– + X– Æ Resin/N+X– + OH–
Anion Anion
exchange resin (in hard water)
The H+ ions obtained in the cation exchange process combine with OH−
ions formed in the anion exchange process to give water.
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H+ + OH– Æ H2O
When the resins are exhausted, they are regenerated by treatment with
acid (in the case of exhausted cation exchange resin) or alkali (in the case
of exhausted anion exchange resin).
Resin/SO3–M + + H+ Æ Resin/SO3– H+ + M+
Exhausted cation Regenerated cation
exchange resin exchange resin
Resin/N+X– + OH– Æ Resin/N+OH– + X–

Exhausted anion Regenerated anion
exchange resin exchange resin
Using the above method, demineralized water can be obtained.

12.7.11 Dissolved Inorganic Impurities
The nature of water depends on dissolved inorganic impurities
(Table 12.5).
12.7.12 Toxic Metals
For details, see Chapter 11, Section 11.6. Their amounts can be estimated by
atomic absorption spectroscopy (for details, see Chapter 8, Section 8.2.1).
12.7.13 Microbial Contamination in Sewage

As already stated (Chapter 11, Section 11.3.1), sewage is an ideal medium
for the growth of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. These
microorganisms are responsible for serious health effects.
Table 12.5 Dissolved inorganic impurities and their effects

Cations present in impurities Impurity anion Effects
Sodium HCO3– Causes alkalinity
CO32– Causes alkalinity
Cl – Changes taste of water

F– Effects tooth enamel
Calcium and magnesium HCO3–, CO32– Causes alkalinity and hardness
Cl –, SO4 Causes hardness
Metal and their ores Fe Causes hardness, imparts red colour, changes
taste
Mn Imparts brown or black colour
Pb Causes Pb poisoning
As Causes As poisoning
Gases O2 Corrodes metals

CO2 Causes acidity
H2S Bad smell, acidity, corrosion
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Summary
• The most important aspect of water management is conservation of
water.
• Water can be conserved by treatment of sewage and domestic wastes,
treatment of wastewater from industries, rainwater harvesting, and
economical use of water.
• Sewage and domestic wastes must be suitably treated before being
discharged in waterbodies.
• The wastewater from industries must be treated at source and reused
in the same industry. The treated water can also be discharged into
waterbodies.
• Rainwater harvesting is the best method for conserving water. It
involves collecting rainwater and using it subsequently.
• Wherever water is required, it should be used economically, without
any wastage.
• In agriculture, irrigation of crops should be carried out when
evaporation loss is minimum, and sprinklers or drip irrigation should
be used. Water should be used economically for domestic use.
• Desalination of sea water can be carried out by reverse osmosis or
by using solar energy.
• Rainwater harvesting or water resulting from floods can also be
regarded as desalination of sea water.
• Water for use must have the right parameters depending on the
particular use.
• The quality of water is mainly judged by its parameters: dissolved
oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen
demand.
• Hard water cannot be used for laundry and generation of steam.
• The hardness of water can be removed by lime soda process, permutit

process, and ion exchange process.
Exercise
1. Water conservation can be best carried out by
(a) Treatment of sewage and domestic waste
(b) Treatment of waste from industries
(c) Rainwater harvesting
(d) Economical use of water
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2. Economical use of water involves

(a) Using sprinklers in agriculture
(b) Drip irrigation in agriculture
(c) Irrigation of crops when evaporation loss in minimum
(d) All of these
3. Desalination of sea water can be carried out by
(a) Reverse osmosis
(b) Using solar energy to get distilled water
(c) Rainwater harvesting is considered desalination of sea water
(d) Flood water is considered desalination of sea water
(e) All of these
4. The quality of water is mainly judged by
(a) Dissolved oxygen
(b) Biochemical oxygen demand
(c) Chemical oxygen demand
(d) All of these
5. Depending on the hardness, water can be softened by
(a) Lime soda process
(b) Permutit process
(c) Ion exchange process
(d) All of these
Answers
1. (c, d) 2. (d) 3. (e)
4. (d) 5. (d)
1. Explain what do you understand by rainwater harvesting?

2. How can water be used economically?
(a) Dissolved oxygen (b) Biochemical oxygen demand
(c) Chemical oxygen demand
4. Explain different types of hardness of water.
5. How can hardness of water be removed?
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Soil
Part IV

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Chapter
13
Formation of Soil and
its Characteristics
13.1 Introduction
Soil is the uppermost, weathered layer of the earth’s crust. It contains rocks
that have been reduced to smaller fragments and remains of plants and
animals. There are four major components in soil: mineral matter (45%),
organic matter (5%), soil air (25%), and soil water (25%). These components
are intimately mixed with each other.
Soil is a mixture of various inorganic and organic chemicals. The main
inorganic constituents are compounds of Ca, Al, Mg, Fe, Si, K, and Na.
Besides these, small amounts of compounds of Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, B, I, and F
are also present in soil. Complex mixtures of minerals present in soil are
carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, and also organic salts of Ca, Mg, K,
Na, and so on. The main organic constituent of soil is humus that contains a
number of organic compounds such as amino acids, proteins, and aromatic
compounds. Humus is responsible for the fertility of soil. It is formed by
the decomposition of plant and animal remains. The process of formation of
humus is called humification. Humus, on decomposition, is converted to CO2,

H2O, and minerals. This process is called mineralization. Humus increases
the water-holding capacity of soil. It binds the soil particles together. It is
also responsible for better circulation of air, increased water percolation,
and comparatively easier root penetration of plants through soil.
13.2 Formation of Soil

Soil formation is initiated with the weathering or disintegration of rocks
by physical, chemical, or biological agents. As a result of weathering, rocks
are broken down into small particles called regoliths, which in turn get
converted into mature soil through pedogenesis. The addition of organic
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matter (humus) to the soil results from the decomposition or putrefaction

of plant and animal remains.
The process of transformation of rocks into soil is called weathering.
There are three types of weathering: (i) physical weathering, (ii) chemical
weathering, and (iii) biological weathering.
13.2.1 Physical Weathering

Physical weathering is brought about by the mechanical action of a number
of weathering agents such as temperature, water, wind, and microbes. This
type of weathering is known as disintegration.
13.2.2 Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by chemical processes
such as oxidation, reduction, carbonation, and hydrolysis. This type of
weathering is known as decomposition. In oxidation, oxygen reacts with
minerals to produce the corresponding oxides, which make the rocks weak
on dissolution in water and cause weathering. For example, iron present in
minerals gives red ferric oxide on oxidation.
4FeO + O2 Æ 2Fe2O3
Oxides and sulphides of Fe, Al, and Mn are easily oxidized and cause
chemical weathering of rocks. Reduction occurs in poorly aerated deep
zones of the earth’s crust. For example, red ferric oxide (Fe2O3) gives grey
ferrous oxide on reduction.
2Fe2O3 Æ 4FeO + O2
Carbonization is very effective in chemical weathering process. Here,

CO2 and H2O combine to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which combines with
the hydroxides of Ca, Mg, and other minerals present in rocks to form the
corresponding carbonates and bicarbonates.
CO2 + H2O Æ H2CO3
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 Æ CaCO3 + H2O

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Æ Ca (HCO3) 2
Being sparingly soluble, carbonates of these minerals accumulate deeper

in the rock material or are carried away depending on the amount of water
passing through. The presence of H+ ions (in percolating waters) or other
inorganic (HNO3, H2SO4) or organic acids accelerates the decomposition
process via chemical weathering.
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Formation of Soil and its Characteristics 207
Hydrolysis invariably takes place in combination with oxidation,

reduction, or carbonation. It involves reaction of water with strong bases,
producing hydroxides of Fe, Mg, Al, and Ca. For example,
K2Al2Si6O16 + 2H2O + CO2 Æ Al2O3· 2SiO2· 2H2O + 4SiO2 + K2CO3

Orthosilicate
The hydrolytic process depends on the partial dissociation of water into

H+ and OH–. Hydrolysis is accelerated by an increase in H+ ion concentration.
Hydrolysis releases Ca, Mg, K, Na, and silicates, which enhance the growth
of plants in the soil.
13.2.3 Biological Weathering

Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, lichens, and mosses are
responsible for converting rock into a dynamic system and synthesizing
organic matter. By this process, the physical structure and mineral
composition of rocks undergo some change. Lichens and mosses extract
mineral nutrients such as Mg, Ca, Na, K, Fe, and P from the rock. These
nutrients, in turn, combine with organic matter and are released in the
developing soil.
The disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals are carried
out by a number of biological or living organisms. These include humans
and animals, roots of plants, and microorganisms. Humans break rocks in
order to build dams, roads, and buildings. By this process, bigger rocks are
converted to smaller rocks. Cutting of rocks increases their surface area,
which favours the chemical weathering process. Besides, birds, insects, and
worms are also responsible for making holes in rocks, which help in the
weathering process.
The roots of plants and trees penetrate into the joints and crevices of
rocks. When they grow, they exert pressure from inside and break a massive
rock into small pieces. Roots generate CO2 during respiration, which helps
in the weathering process.
13.3 Soil Profile

Soil is that part of the lithosphere with which all terrestrial beings interact
directly. Being the surface layer of land, it provides us with basic necessities
such as food, shelter, and clothing. On an average, soil is only 6 inches
deep and, under normal conditions, it takes about 15 years to build 1 cm of
soil. Apart from natural causes, human beings have also harmed the land
surface by using it (for agriculture, development), by taking things out of it
(mining, deforestation), and also by putting things into it (waste disposal).
Soil comprises distinct layers called soil horizons. All soil horizons taken
together form soil profile. Figure 13.1 shows different horizons of soil.
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Figure 13.1 Soil profile
The top layer or A horizon is several inches thick. This layer is most
important for agricultural crops and vegetation. The next layer is B horizon,
also known as subsoil. It receives organic matter, salts, and clay particles by
leaching from the topsoil. Below B horizon is C horizon, which is composed
of weathered parent rocks from which soil originated. The lowest layer is
the hard zone of rocks called bedrocks.
13.4 Soil Characteristics

The characteristics of soil are mainly because of the presence of organic
matter, water, and air in the soil.
13.4.1 Organic Matter
Organic matter is present in soil to the extent of 3%–5% by weight. It
includes decayed plant and animal residues, living and dead microbial cells,
and microbe-synthesized compounds and derivatives of these materials
resulting from microbial decay.
Organic matter influences soil characteristics and is helpful in the growth
of plants. The main organic compound of soil is humus (see Section 13.1).
The important characteristics of organic matter in soil are as follows:
• Improves the physical conditions of soil
• Increases water-holding capacity of soil
• Acts as a major source of nutrients (N, P, and S)
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• Acts as a main energy source for soil organisms

• Improves aeration in soil
• Increases the rate of circulation of air and water through the soil
• Helps the roots of plants to easily penetrate the soil
• Binds soil particles into structural units called aggregates, which help
to maintain loose, open, and granular conditions.
13.4.2 Water
The water in soil is known as soil water or soil moisture. It plays a significant
role in the growth of plants. Water is held within soil pores. Soil water is
helpful in regulating physical, chemical, and biological activities in the soil.
Plants absorb water by the roots from the soil. Water performs the following
functions in the growth of plants:
• Water serves as a carrier of nutrients for the growth of plants.
• Water helps in the process of weathering and soil formation.
• Microorganisms inhibiting the soil use soil water for their metabolic
activities.
• Water is essential for photosynthesis in plants.
13.4.3 Air
Spaces found in between soil particles hold air. There is a continuous
exchange of CO2 and O2 gases between the soil pores and the atmosphere.
This is referred to as soil aeration. A well-aerated soil is necessary for the
respiration of soil microorganisms by whose activity soil fertility increases.
The soil air is an important factor in the growth of plants and biological
activities in the soil because of the following points:
• Poor aeration adversely affects the growth of plants. The absorption of
water and nutrients decreases, and the formation of toxic substances
(such as H2S, oxalic acid, formic acid) is encouraged.

• Insufficient aeration of soil is responsible for the development of
diseases.
• Poor aeration decreases the uptake of water as the permeability of
roots decreases.
• Soil aeration effects adversely the activity of soil microorganisms and
also decreases the rate of decomposition of organic matter.
13.5 Types of Soil
Soil can be of the following types based on texture:
(i) Sandy soil: This type of soil contains loose and dry sand particles
(of size 0.05–1.00 mm) along with clay (10%) and silt (of particle
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size 0.002–0.05 mm). This soil has a light texture, and its fertility
is poor owing to the lack of nutrients. This kind of soil has poor
water-holding capacity because of large spaces present between the
particles. Sandy soil has low humus and nutrient content and is not
suitable for the growth of plants.
(ii) Clayey soil: This kind of soil has clay particles (of size <0.002 mm).
This soil has smaller interspaces and inhibits the free circulation of
air and water. It has good water-holding capacity. It is solid, and
so roots penetrate with difficulty. Such soil is unsuitable for plant
growth. This soil contains soil (60%), silt (5%), and clay (31%).
(iii) Loamy soil: This soil contains sand, silt, and clay in equal proportion.
Loamy soil has more soil water. The movement of water is easy, and
there is easy penetration of roots. Aeration and fertility of this type
of soil are good. This soil is best suited for cultivation.
(iv) Sandy–loamy soil: This type of soil contains sand (10%–80%), silt
(50%), and clay (20%), and is suitable for the growth of plants.
(v) Clayey–loamy soil: This soil contains clay particles (30%), sand (80%),
and silt (15%). It is also suitable for growth of plants.
(vi) Silt–loamy soil: This type of soil contains sand (50%), silt (50%), and
clay (27%), and is not suitable for plant growth.
13.6 Alkaline, Acidic, and Neutral Soil

Soil may be neutral, acidic, or alkaline depending on its pH. Neutral soil
has pH 7, acidic soil has pH < 7, and alkaline soil has pH > 7. The pH of the
soil varies depending on the nature of the rock from which it is formed, the
degree of weathering, and the extent of biological activities. For example,
acidic soil (pH 5.0–6.5) is derived from granite rocks. Such soil is deficient in
Ca and Mg, and is injurious to earthworms. Soil containing large amounts
of humus is generally acidic.
Alkaline soil (pH 7.5–8.0) is generally derived from limestone rocks.

Such soil can be reclaimed by first growing some salt-tolerant plants
(such as acacia), and then it can be used for crops such as sugar beet. Alkaline
soil does not support extensive vegetation. Soil having pH near neutrality
or slightly towards acidity (pH 6–7) is best suited for vegetation.
13.7 Plant Nutrients

Plants require nutrients for their proper development. These nutrients are
chemical elements. About 60 elements are found in different plants. These
elements are derived from the rocks from which the soil is formed. If
some elements are deficient in the soil, these have to added. In fact, soil
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is a reservoir of primary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium),

secondary nutrients (sulphur, magnesium, and calcium), and micronutrients
(iron, manganese, boron, chlorine, zinc, copper, and molybdenum). Table 13.1
lists the plant nutrients, their functions, and effects of their deficiency.
Table 13.1 Major plant nutrients

Nutrient Function Adverse effects of deficiency
Nitrogen Development of plants, giving healthy Plant becomes yellowish or light

leaf, seed, and tuber yield green; leaves fall prematurely; poor
yield of crops; root growth affected
Phosphorus Stimulates early root formation and Restrictive root and shoot growth;
growth of plants; increases maturity leaves may shed prematurely; slow
growth and low yield
Potassium Enhancement of the ability to resist May cause chlorosis (yellowing

disease, insect attack, and adverse of leaves); decreased rate of
weather photosynthesis; retarded growth
Sulphur Involved in producing energy; responsible Young leaves become yellow; fixing
for flavour and odour of atmospheric nitrogen reduced;
maturity in cereals delayed
Magnesium Part of chlorophyll; important in seed Yellowing of older leaves (chlorosis);

production premature defoliation
Calcium Essential for root health; growth of new Growth of plants hampered; soil
roots; development of leaves becomes acidic; leaves may wrinkle
Iron Essential for energy transfer, plant enzyme Leaves turn brown, chlorosis of
functions, and photosynthesis young leaves
Manganese Helps in photosynthesis Leads to chlorosis
Boron Helpful in tissue respiration, cell division, Retardation in plant growth; leaves
pollination, seed production, and turn yellow or red; decreased rate
regulation of water intake of water absorption
Chlorine Required in traces, it assists metabolism; Premature yellowing of leaves

involved in water regulation
Zinc Essential for regulation of growth; Flowering, fruiting, and maturity

important in enzyme systems delayed; leaves fall prematurely
Copper Essential constituent of enzyme; plays a Photosynthesis hampered, chlorosis

role in respiration and photosynthesis
Molybdenum Essential in the formation of proteins from Reduction in the activity of symbiotic
soluble nitrogen compounds; converts and non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
atmospheric nitrogen to soluble nitrogen organisms
compounds
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Summary
• Soil is the uppermost weathered layer of the earth’s crust and contains
remains of plants and animals that live on it.
• The major components of soil are mineral matter (45%), organic
matter (5%), soil air (25%), and soil water (25%).
• Soil is a mixture of various inorganic and organic compounds.
• The organic component of soil is called humus and is responsible for
the fertility of soil.
• Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks, which can be physical,
chemical, or biological weathering.
• Soil is that part of the lithosphere with which terrestrial beings
interact directly. It provides basic necessities such as food, shelter,
and clothing.
• On an average, soil is only 6 inches deep.
• It takes about 15 years to build 1 cm of soil.
• Soil comprises distinct layers called soil horizons. All horizons taken
together form soil profile.
• The different horizons in the soil profile are top soil, subsoil,
weathered parent rocks, and bedrocks.
• The characteristics of soil are influenced by the presence of organic
matter, water, and air in the soil.
• The soil can be of different types: sandy soil, clayey soil, loamy soil,
sandy–loamy soil, clayey–loamy soil, and silt–loamy soil.
• The most important soil for vegetation is loamy soil.
• Soil can be alkaline, acidic, or neutral depending on its pH.
• Soil having pH near neutrality (pH 6–7) is best suited for
vegetation.
• Soil contains a number of chemical elements that are obtained from

the parent rock and are essential to the vegetation and growth of
crops.
• Deficiency of elements in the soil is responsible for adverse effects.
Exercise
1. The major components of soil are
(a) Mineral matter (b) Organic matter
(c) Soil air (d) Soil water
(e) All of these
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2. Soil is formed from rocks by

(a) Physical weathering (b) Chemical weathering
(c) Biological weathering (d) All of these
3. The breakdown of rocks by chemical weathering involves
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
(c) Carbonation (d) Hydrolysis
(e) All of these
4. Which of the following statements is correct about soil?
(a) Soil is only 6 inches deep.
(b) It takes about 15 years to build 1 cm of soil.
(c) Soil comprises distinct layers called soil horizons.
(d) All soil horizons taken together form soil profile.
(e) All of these
5. Soil characteristics are because of the presence of
(a) Organic matter (b) Water
(c) Air (d) All of these
6. Which of the following soil is most suitable for cultivation?
(a) Sandy soil (b) Clayey soil
(c) Loamy soils (d) Silt–loamy soil
7. Soil having pH in the range ______ is best suited for vegetation.
(a) <7 (b) >7
(c) 6–7 (d) 7.5–8.0
Answers
1. (e) 2. (d) 3. (e) 4. (e)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c)

1. How is soil formed?
2. Write notes on humification and mineralization.
3. How chemical and biological weathering of rocks take place?
4. Describe soil profile.
5. Discuss the characteristics of different soils.
6. Write notes on different types of soil. Which type of soil is best suited
for cultivation?
7. Soil is a reservoir of different types of nutrients. Discuss.
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Chapter
14 Soil Pollution
14.1 Introduction
In most underdeveloped and developing countries, soil is used as a dumping
ground for waste products — domestic, human, animal, industrial, and
agricultural. The solid wastes dumped into the soil are increasing every
year at an alarming rate all over the world. Large amounts of a number of
hazardous chemicals and several thousand tonnes of wastes are dumped
on the land. These then get leached by rain and pollute the groundwater.
The use of agrochemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, bactericides,
insecticides) has added to the problems of soil pollution. Besides, soil also
gets polluted by deadly pathogenic compounds. Soil pollution is different
from air and water pollution because pollutants remain in direct contact
The Love Canal tragedy

For many years up to 1952, the Hooker Chemical buried its wastes in the Love
Canal neighbourhood of Niagara Falls, New York. After the burial area was
filled, the canal was covered with clay. This land was subsequently acquired
by the Board of Education of Niagara Falls. Later, residential houses and a
school were built on this land. After about 25 years, the wastes from the buried
drums started leaching out. Soon the residents and school children started
complaining of foul odour, and a number of cases of illness were reported.
Children playing near the site suffered from chemical burns, and some children
even died. It was found that a number of women suffered miscarriages and
children were born with defects. Cases of asthma and urinary, ear, and sinus
infections increased. People also reported respiratory diseases, rashes, and
headaches. Investigations identified about 26 toxic organic compounds, including
CHCl3, C6H6, C6H5CH3, perchloroethylene, and chlorotoluene. Some of these
compounds were recognized as potential human carcinogens. As a result of
these findings, the State of New York declared health emergency in the area and
transferred 300 affected families. The school was also shifted to a safe place.
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with the soil for a longer period of time. An interesting case of soil pollution
and its problems can be clearly understood from the events that occurred
in Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York.
Human activities are responsible for harming the land surface. Some of
the major effects are as follows:
(i) Loss of biodiversity: Cutting vast areas of forests to clear land for
agricultural and development needs and the ever-growing human
population have led to the destruction of flora and fauna. According
to the International Union of the Conservation for Nature (IUCN),
it is estimated that by 2050, about 50,000 plant species will become
extinct or threatened.
(ii) Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the process of loosening, detachment,
and removal of soil components, especially the topsoil particles. Soil
erosion is caused by the flow of water (during rains and floods) and
blowing of winds (particularly storms). These forces are particularly
effective if the land surface becomes devoid of vegetation cover.
Excessive soil erosion from top surface causes loss of topsoil, which
reduces soil fertility. Eroded soil gets deposited in river beds, resulting
in silting of the waterbodies.
(iii) Acidity, alkalinity, and salinity: Acid rain is responsible for making
the soil acidic. Also if excessive amounts of fertilizers such as
ammonium sulphate are added to the soil, NH4+ ions are used up
by successive crops, but SO42– ions make the soil acidic, rendering it
unsuitable for growing plants. If NaNO3 or KNO3 is used as fertilizer,
NO3– ions are used up by successive crops, but Na+ and K+ ions
get accumulated in the soil. These cations render the soil alkaline,
thus making it unsuitable for plant growth. When fertilizers are
used in excess to increase the crop production and a lot of water is
used for irrigation where there is a lack of good drainage system
for the passage of excess water, salts get accumulated in the soil.
The soil becomes saline and, thus, unsuitable for growth of crops.
For agricultural crops, the pH of the soil should be near neutral.
Acidity, alkalinity, or salinity of the soil must be neutralized before
cultivating crops. This is called reclamation of soil. Acidic soil can
be reclaimed by the addition of lime (CaCO3). This process is called
liming.
[Soil] H+ + CaCO3 Æ [Soil] Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
Alkaline soil can be reclaimed by treating it with Al2(SO4)3 or with

Fe2(SO4)3, which sets the acids free.
2Fe3+ + 3SO2– + 6H2O Æ 2Fe(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO42–
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Soil Pollution 217
Alkaline soil can also be reclaimed by the addition of sulphur, which

gets oxidized to H2SO4 in the soil by bacteria-mediated reactions.
2S + 3O2 + 2H2O Æ 4H+ + 2SO42–
Saline soil can be reclaimed by leaching the soil with excess of water,
followed by drainage of water. The water dissolves the salts that are
drained out.
(iv) Land pollution by waste deposition: It may not be incorrect to say
that in India (and also in some other Asian countries), land is used
to dump all types of wastes. The major types of wastes and their
sources are given in Table 14.1.
Waste disposal is one of the major problems all over the world. In India
and other Asian countries, the per capita waste generation is increasing and
most of the solid waste is land filled. Sanitary landfill requirements are not
followed while dumping these wastes. When water seeps through the wastes,
it gets contaminated and pollutes the surrounding areas. The contamination
of soil and groundwater through landfills is called leaching.
Rainwater runs off from uncovered, untreated, and unsegregated solid
wastes and contaminates nearby land and waterbodies. If the waste is
incinerated, the ash obtained contains high concentration of dangerous
toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals. When buried in landfills, such
ashes leach in the surrounding area and cause pollution.
The dangers posed to soil are because of the increase in population. The
fact is that the number of inhabitants is increasing at an alarming rate. The
earth’s natural resources are limited. Thus, the soil gets heavily polluted day
by day by hazardous chemicals. As a result, microorganisms have entered
the food chain, air, and water, which are consumed by humans, resulting
in severe health effects. The pollution of soil is known to result from the
following sources: industrial waste, urban waste, radioactive pollutants,
agricultural activities, chemical and metallic pollutants, biological agents,
and mining.
Table 14.1 Major types of wastes generated from different sources that pollute the soil
Waste Source of waste
Urban waste Municipal wastage, sewage, industrial effluents, domestic effluents, hospital
waste
Industrial waste Slag, lime, sludge, brine mud, scraps of metals, glass, ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, wool, thread and paper, fly ash, plastics, waste from tanneries and
other small-scale industries, water effluents
Domestic waste Organic waste from kitchen, crockery, tin cans, plastic cans, bottles and
bags, glass bottles, rags, paper pieces, straw, board, boxes, ash
Rural waste Pesticides, herbicides, agricultural run-off
Nuclear plant waste Radioactive hazardous wastes
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14.2 Industrial Wastes

Soil pollution is mainly caused by dumping of wastes generated from various
industrial units such as paper and pulp industry, caustic chlorine industry,
fertilizer and chemical industry, agro-based industries, sugar industry,
distillery industry, plastic industry, mining and metallurgy industry,
cement industry, dyeing industry, detergent industry, and so on. Pollutants
discharged from industries vary from industry to industry. These pollutants
include heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and pathogens. All
these pollutants cause serious health effects when they enter the food chain
and find their way into humans via bioaccumulation. The most harmful
pollutants are pathogens that cause leprosy, malaria, cholera, respiratory
problems, dysentery, and tuberculosis. For details about industrial pollution,
see Chapter 6.
14.3 Urban Wastes
Urban wastes comprise both domestic and commercial wastes. These wastes
contain dried sludge of sewage, garbage, and rubbish such as plastic,
glasses, metallic cans, paper, and other discarded manufactured products,
particularly made of plastic. Unimaginable quantities of such wastes are
dumped all over the world. For example, the UK, the USA, and India dump
about 15 million tonnes, 410,000 tonnes, and 4000 tonnes, respectively, of
urban wastes on land. New York dumps 25,000 tonnes of such wastes per
day. Most of these wastes do not easily degrade. The problem has become
more serious because of increase in population.
Urban wastes contain a large quantity of plastic bags. These are non-
biodegradable and cannot be destroyed. Burning of plastic bags emits
toxic gases containing dioxins, which are responsible for lung infection,
respiratory problems, bronchitis, and also cancer. Coloured plastic bags
contain dyes and pigments, and these contaminate food and cause food
poisoning, kidney damage, and abnormality in bones, particularly in

children. These bags choke the drainage system, which in turn becomes
breeding grounds for mosquitoes, flies, and bacteria that are harmful for
human health. The phthalates used in the manufacture of plastics are
responsible for reduced fertility, miscarriage, birth defects, abnormal sperm
count, and testicular damage. These are also responsible for causing liver
and kidney cancer.
14.4 Radioactive Pollutants
Radioactive substances result from testing of nuclear devices, atmospheric
fallout from nuclear dust, and radioactive wastes. These penetrate the soil
and cause soil pollution. Radioisotopes are another source of radioactive
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Soil Pollution 219
pollution. These are used in the industry, medicine, and nuclear reactors.
These isotopes are discharged in the air, from which rain brings them
down to the soil. Accidental leakage of radiation from nuclear reactors is
an additional hazard. Different human organs are affected by different
radionuclides. (For details, see Chapter 11, Section 11.7 and Table 11.2.)
14.5 Agricultural Activities
In agricultural activities, agrochemicals are used to increase yield and get
better quality crops. These agrochemicals include fertilizers and pesticides
(insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides). Though these agrochemicals are
useful in increasing the yield, they also pollute the soil as discussed in the
following sections.
14.5.1 Fertilizers
Fertilizers are of three types: nitrogen based (NaNO3, (NH4)2 SO 4,
NH2CONH2), phosphorus based (superphosphate), and potassium based
(KCl, K2SO4). Excessive use of fertilizers pollutes the soil. For example,
when ammonium sulphate is repeatedly used as fertilizer, NH4+ ions are
used by crops, but SO42− ions get accumulated in the soil. This results in
making the soil acidic and unfit for growing crops. However, acidic soil can
be reclaimed by liming (addition of CaCO3).
[Soil] H+ + CaCO3 [Soil] Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
In acidic soil, bacterial population decreases and fungi population
increases. Also there is excessive growth of weeds and herbs. If excessive
amounts of sodium or potassium nitrates are used as fertilizers, the NO3−
ions are used up by the crops, but Na+ and K+ ions get accumulated in the
soil, thereby rendering the soil alkaline and making it unfit for cultivation.
Alkaline soils can, however, be reclaimed by treating the soil with Al2(SO4)3
or FeSO4.
2Fe3+ + 3SO42– + 6H2O Æ 2Fe(OH)3 Ø + 6H+ + 3SO42–

After the use of fertilizers, the fields must be well irrigated. If there is
no outlet of water, the soil becomes saline owing to the accumulation of the
salts. The process is called salinization of soil, and the soil becomes unfit
for cultivation. Such soil can be reclaimed by the removal of the salts. This
can be achieved by the application of gypsum followed by leaching.
When excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizers are used, the concentration
of nitrate ions increases in leafy vegetables. Consumption of such vegetables
results in the accumulation of nitrates in the body. The nitrates get reduced
to nitrites in the body, which is a probable factor for the development of
cancer. In small children, there may be accumulation of nitrite, leading to
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methaemoglobinaemia. The nitrite in the body reacts with haemoglobin

(in the blood) and reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. This
condition is referred to as blue baby syndrome. The child’s body becomes
blue, which may be fatal. The symptoms are diarrhoea and vomiting.
The problems arising from the use of excessive amounts of fertilizers
can be remedied by applying the following suggestions:
• Rotating crops.
• Using lower amounts of fertilizers than the recommended dose.
• Using biofertilizers such as vermicompost obtained from waste
materials.
• Microbial inoculants are used as the source of biofertilizers in most
countries. The nitrogen in the atmosphere is biologically fixed for
plants. A number of free-living and symbiotic bacteria that are known
to fix atmospheric nitrogen are used in biofertilizers. Two types of
biofertilizers are used in agriculture: bacterial biofertilizers and algal
biofertilizers. In Japan, techniques have been developed for the mass
cultivation of blue-green algae, which is used as a biofertilizer in
paddy fields.
14.5.2 Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill pests or prevent the
reproductive process of harmful organisms. According to the World Health
Organization, about 750,000 people are poisoned by pesticides every year,
and the pesticides are responsible for about 14,000 deaths. As already stated,
pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides.
Insecticides: These are used in eliminating harmful insects and are
responsible for preventing spoilage of food crops (grains) during storage.
Synthetic insecticides are of the following four types:
1. Organochlorines (DDT, aldrin, dieldrin): These insecticides are non-
biodegradable and kill insects that are helpful to crops. These get
accumulated in vegetables and fruits and are harmful for humans.
Continued use of these insecticides makes the harmful organisms
resistant to them. These insecticides have mostly been phased out.
2. Organophosphates (parathion, diazinon, demeton): These are
biodegradable and have low persistence in the atmosphere. These
toxic chemicals also kill non-target insects and are harmful for
humans.
3. Carbonates (carbaryl and methiocarb): These are less toxic and less
resistant than organophosphates.
4. Pyrethroids (pyrethrum and deltamethrin): These are structural
analogues of pyrethrum, the naturally occurring insect repellent
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Soil Pollution 221
present in chrysanthemum. However, these are costly. About one-

third of insecticides are pyrethroids.
Excessive use of insecticides is harmful to the environment in a number
of ways. Some of these are as follows:
• Accumulation in the fatty tissues of several organisms, including
humans, via plants and vegetables.
• Effectiveness decreases when the insects become resistant to
insecticides.
• Accumulation of insecticides (DDT) in the fatty tissues of birds
decline their capacity to reproduce.
• Contamination of river and ocean water with insecticides is harmful
to aquatic organisms.
In view of the harmful effects of insecticides on the environment, it is
best to use alternative insecticides that are environmentally benign. Some
of such alternatives are as follows:
• Hormonal insecticides: These insecticides eliminate the insects by
disturbing their metabolic process. An example of such insecticides
is juvenile hormone.
• Sex attractants: Compounds known as pheromones have the ability

to attract male insects from a long distance (about 3 km). Using these
compounds, the insects can be assembled in a small area and then
killed by any means.
• Biopesticides: A number of biopesticides such as bacteria, fungi,

and virus are used in agriculture. The bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis
and B. cereus are effective against Lepidoptera. Bacillus sphaericus
controls scarab beetle and mosquitoes. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is
used to control Lepidoptera, grasshoppers, and Coleopteran. Among
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the fungi, Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii, Nomuraea rileyi, and

Hisutelta thomposonil are useful in controlling brown planthopper,
aphids, moths, and citrus mites. Some common viruses used as
biopesticides are cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (controls Diptera,
Lepidoptera, and Coleopteran) and Entomopoxvirinae virus (controls
Lepidoptera and Diptera).
Besides bacteria and viruses, a number of plants and trees have
also been used for controlling pests. Examples of such plants and
trees include Neem, Moringa oleifera, leaf and fruit extract of bael,
opuntia, and cacti, jatropha, and aromatic plants, such as garlic and
fennel.
14.5.3 Fungicides
Fungicides are used to check the growth of fungi. They live as saprophytes
on decaying organic matter or as parasites at the expense of living
organisms. Fungicides are of two types: systemic fungicides (thiabendazole,
carboxin, thiophanate) and non-systemic fungicides (phenylmercury acetate,
4,6-diamino-o-cresol, Captan).
Fungicides are harmful to the environment. Some of the effects of
fungicides on the environment are as follows:
• Increases bacterial population, and so the plants become susceptible
to bacterial diseases.
• Is toxic to soil anthropoids. For example, higher dose of the fungicide
Captan reduces the population of useful soil invertebrates such as
springtails (Collembola), earthworms, and millipedes.
• Eliminates seed-eating birds such as bobwhite quail and pigeons
when mercurial fungicides are used in the treatment of seeds. These
insecticides also impair egg hatching in pheasants, resulting in a
reduction in the population of such species.
• Causes human poisoning and death when mercurial fungicides are

used.
The effects of fungicides on the environment can be minimized by using
them selectively in low concentration. In fact, more effective, less toxic, and
environment friendly fungicides should be developed. One such fungicide
is a derivative of β-methoxy acrylic acid.
14.5.4 Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals that kill unwanted weeds, which are known to
retard the growth of main crops. These are of two types of herbicides:
contact herbicides (Bromacil, cacodylic acid, Endothale) and systemic
herbicides (2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, Diuron, Picloram). They increase fungal content,
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Soil Pollution 223
resulting in fungal diseases. Herbicides such as 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, when

sprayed on trees, are harmful to millards, quail, and partridges. The health
and survival of human beings are compromised when in contact with the
herbicides. The harmful effects of herbicides can be reduced only by using
environmentally friendly herbicides.
14.6 Chemical and Metallic Pollutants

Chemical and metallic pollutants are hazardous effluents discharged in the
soil (and water) by a number of industries, including textiles, pesticides,
paints, dyes, soap, synthetic detergents, tanneries, drugs, batteries, cement,
asbestos, rubber, petroleum, paper and pulp, sugar, glass, electroplating,
and metal industries. Hazardous effluents in soil have disastrous effects
on living organisms.
A number of toxic chemicals such as mercury chloride, nitrate, zinc,
iron, and cadmium have adverse effects on crop productivity. Toxic metals
are absorbed by plants, which accumulate in animals that eat such plants
and finally in humans who eat such animals. It has been shown that such
toxic metals increase the rate of maternal mortality, kidney- and liver-related
ailments, birth abnormality, and even cancer. Women suffer from pregnancy
problems such as toxaemia, haemorrhages, and liver- and kidney-related
problems. Metallic contaminants in soil are believed to be indestructible
poisons. (See also Chapter 6, Section 11.6.)
14.7 Biological Agents
Biological agents are introduced in the soil from human, animal, and bird
excreta. In addition, sewage and municipal garbage, which contain live
viruses and intestinal worms, cause soil pollution because of the presence of
biological agents in them. Human excreta contains pathogens such as enteric
bacteria and parasitic worms. These organisms in humans are attributed
to the consumption of vegetables or fruits grown in contaminated soil and

are responsible for health hazards. Insects such as earthworms, millipedes,
isopods, dipterous larvae, and snails are sources of fungal and bacterial
spores. The disease-causing organisms are transmitted from animals to soil
and then from soil to humans.
14.8 Mining
Through the process of mining, minerals are taken out of the earth. A
number of mining activities, such as coal mining, mica mining, asbestos
mining, and mining of metallic ores, are carried out throughout the globe.
Mining wastes create a number of problems depending on their nature.
The trailing deposits from mining operations cover thousands of hectares
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of land. For mining, the top soil has to be removed, which results in land
degradation. (See also Chapter 6, Section 6.11.)
14.9 Environmental Concerns of Soil Pollution

Pollutants, once entering any component of the biosphere, can cycle through
all the components, that is, air, water, and soil and enter the organisms.
Let us consider the example of pesticides, chemicals that are used to
eliminate pests. Pesticides are sprayed on plants or mixed with soil in
fields. Spraying enables the entry of pesticides in the atmosphere. Rainfall
brings back these chemicals to the land and waterbodies. Pesticides that
run off from agricultural fields enter the waterbodies. Being generally
non-biodegradable, they enter the food chain through water or vegetables.
They can then bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the higher levels of
food chain. Bioaccumulation refers to the entry of a pollutant from the
environment to the first organism in the food chain. Biomagnification is the
phenomenon of increasing the concentration of a pollutant from one link
in a food chain to another. The water-soluble pollutants can be excreted
by the organism, but fat-soluble pollutants may be retained for a long time
and biomagnified. Fatty tissues of organisms such as fish are tested for the
detection and measurement of such pollutants. In mammals, often mother’s
milk is tested for pollutants because it has a lot of fat in it.
14.10 Harmful Effects of Soil Pollution

Hazardous pollutants reach humans via several routes such as ingestion,
skin absorption, and inhalation, resulting in allergies, sensory loss, and
cancer. Problems become more acute when pollutants enter the placenta to
mutate the genes, which leads to birth defects. Studies have confirmed that
pollutants have toxic effects on the foetus. Therefore, expecting mothers
must take all possible precautions to avoid contact with pollutants.
Some inorganic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, nickel,

fluorine, boron, copper, manganese, chromium, and molybdenum that cause
soil pollution are of public health concern owing to their potential risks to
humans. These elements tend to accumulate in the living tissues via food
chain and bioaccumulate in the system. Organic solvents, which are common
constituents of pesticides, can be absorbed by humans and cause health
hazards. Being volatile, these solvents evaporate at room temperature and,
when inhaled, reach the entire circulation in a very short time. Absorption
through skin is also very high. The foetus experiences severe toxic effects
owing to the presence of these volatile organic solvents. These affect the
central nervous system, kidneys, liver, and heart.
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Soil Pollution 225
14.11 Preventive Measures to Check Health Hazards due to

Soil Pollution
The best strategy is to control or check soil pollution, as prevention is
better than cure. Pollutants should be prevented at the source of generation
so that they do not pollute the soil. The following guidelines should be
adhered to:
• Industrial and municipal treatment plants should be used. The sludge
left should be converted into biofertilizers.
• Industrial effluents should be treated at the factory site only, and the
effluents that are free from pollutants should be discharged into the
waterbodies.
• If water is used in any industrial operation, it should be appropriately
treated and reused in the same industry after removal of
pollutants.
• Any waste or by-product generated in any industry should be used
for making other useful products.
• Any gaseous effluents generated (as in coal-based power plants) should
be passed though electrostatic precipitators (to remove suspended
particulate matter) before discharging into the atmosphere. The soot
collected in the operation is a valuable by-product.
• Any nuclear waste generated in atomic plants should be disposed of
after following standard procedures.
• All manufacturing units should be designed to avoid the possibility
of accidents and release of volatile solvents into the atmosphere.
• In any chemical manufacturing process, all starting materials should
be incorporated into the final product. In other words, there should
be maximum atom utilization.
• Chemical fertilizers should be used in bare minimum amount. It is
best to use lesser amounts of fertilizers than required. If possible,
chemical fertilizers should be replaced by biofertilizers. Pests should

be controlled by biological processes.
Summary
• Soil pollution is caused by the dumping of various hazardous
chemicals, including municipal wastes, in the soil.
• Human activities are responsible for harming the land surface.
• Soil pollution is known to result from a number of sources such as
industrial wastes, urban wastes, radioactive pollutants, agricultural
activities, chemical and metallic pollutants, biological agents, and
mining.
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• The pollutants in the soil are taken up by plants, which are consumed
by animals. These pollutants, thus, enter the food chain and become
harmful for humans.
• Radioactive pollutants are the most harmful of all pollutants.
• The pollution caused by agrochemicals can be redressed by using
biofertilizers and bioherbicides.
Exercise
1. Human activities are responsible for harming the land surface
through
(a) Loss of biodiversity
(b) Soil erosion
(c) Increased acidity or alkalinity of soil
(d) All of these
2. Most harmful pollutants of soil are
(a) Radioactive pollutants (b) Biological agents
(c) Metallic pollutants (d) All of these
3. Use of excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizers such as (NH4)2SO4
renders the soil
(a) Acidic (b) Alkaline (c) Saline (d) All of these
4. The effects of fungicides on the environment include
(a) Increase in bacterial population
(b) Reduction in the population of useful soil invertebrates
(c) Elimination of seed-eating birds due to mercurial fungicides
(d) All of these
Answers
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d)
1. The dangers posed by soil pollution are due to increase in population.
Comment.
2. Which sources cause soil pollution?
3. Write notes on soil pollution by urban wastes, radioactive pollutants,
and biological agents.
4. Write notes on
(a) Acidic soil (b) Alkaline soil
(c) Salinization of soils
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Soil Pollution 227
5. What are biofertilizers and biopesticides?

6. What are the environmental concerns of soil pollution?
7. What preventive measures can be taken to check the health hazards
owing to soil pollution?
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Chapter
15
Control of
Soil Pollution
15.1 Control of Sewage, Domestic Wastes, and

Industrial Wastes
Sewage, domestic wastes, and industrial wastes combined constitute more
than 70% of soil pollutants. Sewage and domestic wastes must be treated
before being discharged into waterbodies (see Chapter 12, Section 12.2).
Solid waste that remains after sewage treatment is called sludge. It is also
obtained from septic tanks, which are used for domestic sewage. The upper
layer of fluids flows through the tank into a system of perforated pipes and
gets slowly filtered through the soil. The sludge is spread over infertile land,
where it undergoes bacterial decomposition and the land becomes fertile.
Disposal of solid waste involves a number of steps. These include collection
of wastes, disposal, and recovery of resources. The most important step is
the recovery of resources. Examples are given in the ensuing sections.
15.1.1 Biogas
Biogas is a source of energy for cooking. Using a simple process, cattle

dung is used to produce a gas (called biogas) that contains 55%–70% of
inflammable methane gas. It is a clear and an efficient fuel for rural areas.
Water weeds such as water hyacinth, water lettuce, salvinia, hydrilla,
duck weeds, and algae are found to be useful supplements to cattle dung.
Biogas can also be used to generate steam, which in turn may be used
for running engines or machines in factories or for running turbines to
generate electricity. Biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of
families or even small villages. The residual dung or the digested slurry left
after generating biogas can be used as manure. This is an economical way
of obtaining energy from organic wastes. In India, great efforts are being
made to install thousands of biogas plants in rural areas. A typical biogas
plant is shown in Figure 15.1.
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Figure 15.1 Biogas production by anaerobic fermentation
The slurry obtained after extraction of juice from sugar cane is used
either as manure or for generation of biogas. The discharges from tanneries
contain mostly fleshings and chromium. These discharges are now used for
the production of biogas. The process is known as biomethylation. It involves
mixing organic waste with sludge, and then the mixture is minced before
being transferred to the biodigester. Anaerobic soil bacteria break down
the wastes and generate biogas. After about 2 weeks, the solid waste can
be used as rich manure. In some advanced countries where underground
facilities exist, sewage gas is utilized. This gas is a mixture of methane and
carbon dioxide from which methane gas is separated and used as fuel.
15.1.2 Recycling and Reuse of Waste

Waste from one industry can be used as raw material in another industry.
For example, bagasse obtained in sugar manufacturing from sugar cane is
used as a raw material in the paper and pulp industry. Besides, bagasse
can also be used as a substitute for coal in boiler houses for generating
steam. Wastewater from an industry can be purified and reused in the
same industry.
(i) Recycling of paper: Waste paper can be converted into good quality
paper. In fact, manufacture of 1 tonne of paper through recycling
saves 17 fully grown trees from felling.
(ii) Recycling of plastics: Plastics, being non-biodegradable, create a
number of problems. If possible, it is best to recycle plastic. Only two
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Control of Soil Pollution 231
types of plastics can be recycled: polyethylene terephthalate (PETE)

and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Containers made from these
plastics can be easily recognized through a special sign (e.g. HDPE—
code 1 and PETE—code 2), which helps in their separate collection. In
the recycling process, the plastics are melted and poured into moulds.
Such containers cannot be used for storing food as some of the
contaminants from the original container may be left. Some plastics,
for example PETE, are turned into carpets, jackets, and new PETE
bottles. These bottles can be used for storing water, which are used
throughout the world. Plastic bags made of low-density polyethylene
are difficult to recycle. However, attempts are being made to recycle
such bags.
(iii) Recycling of glass: Glass can be easily recycled. However, the process
is costly.
(iv) Recycling of metals: Recycling of metals from metallic cans, scraps,
wrecked automobiles, and metallic wastes is profitable and can be
utilized.
(v) Recycling of organics: Organic matter, a constituent of solid wastes
(such as municipal wastes), can be decomposed aerobically to get
compost and used as fertilizer.
15.2 Control of Urban Wastes

The steps involved in waste management include source reduction, recycling,
and disposal. The best solutions for the disposal of solid wastes are sanitary
landfills (Figure 15.2) and incineration. In sanitary landfills, a pit of suitable
size is dug (at least 50 × 50 × 10 m3). The sides of the pit are lined with
an impermeable membrane such as a plastic membrane. The solid waste
is carefully placed in the pit. The waste is spread out and compacted
with heavy machinery. Each day, the waste is covered with a layer of
compacted soil. When the pit becomes full, it is closed with concrete. In
such a procedure, there is no possibility of groundwater pollution as has

been the case with older landfills (pollution of underground water occurs
because of percolation of contaminated water during rains).
The landfill method for the disposal of solid waste is an economic
procedure although selecting suitable sites within an economic hauling
distance is sometimes difficult. An alternative procedure for disposing solid
wastes is incineration. In this procedure, the wastes are burnt in a suitable
furnace. Heating is carried out at about 85°C for about 1 h. In this process,
the waste is converted to CO2 and H2O. The solid waste is reduced by about
90% in volume and 75% in weight. The remains, which may contain some
toxic materials, are disposed of in sanitary landfills.
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Figure 15.2 Various layers of a sanitary landfill
15.3 Organic Farming
Most agroproducts, particularly fruits and vegetables, are grown using
chemical fertilizers. The products contain a number of agrochemicals such
as insecticides, fungicides, and pesticides, which they intake through soil.
These chemicals have hazardous effects on human health. In view of this,
a large number of people, particularly in developed countries, have started
using organic agroproducts, which include vegetables, fruits, milk, and non-
vegetarian products, such as meat and fish. The organic agroproducts are
obtained by organic farming, which involves agricultural production with
the help of biofertilizers and biopesticides. Also the water used should be
free from pollutants. Crop rotation with leguminous plants is helpful in
maintaining the fertility of the soil. Organic milk is obtained by feeding
cows with green plants and food free from pollutants. Good quality meat
products and fish are obtained by rearing animals, including fish, under
green environments.
15.3.1 Biofertilizers
The term “fertilizer” is used for a substance that, when added to the soil,
increases the growth and yield of crops. The problem associated with the
use of chemical fertilizers is that the soil becomes highly saline. Thus, it is
best to use biofertilizers. It has been found that some microbial inoculants
are a good source of biofertilizers. It is known that a number of free-
living and symbiotic bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used
as biofertilizers in place of chemical nitrogen fertilizers. Biofertilizers can
be bacterial or algal. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria are mass cultured for
bacterization. Such bacteria include Azotobacter sps. and Rhizobium sps. and
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are used for dressing seeds or as granulated materials for addition during
field preparation. For use on a large scale, the bacteria for inoculation
as biofertilizer in soil have to be multiplied on artificial media. Japanese
scientists have standardized a technique for the cultivation of blue-green
algae (BGA), which is suitable for use as a biofertilizer in paddy cultivation.
Subsequently, BGA has also been used in the Indian rice fields. In addition
to BGA, Azolla water fern has been adopted as a biofertilizer in rice fields
in a number of countries. Some important groups of biofertilizers are as
follows:
• Azolla–Anabaena symbiosis: It is an alternative source of nitrogen.
The biofertilizer potential of Azolla is attributed to the presence of
a nitrogen-fixing BGA Anabaena azollae as a symbiont in its leaves.
Azolla is found worldwide and has been used as biofertilizer in a
number of countries, including India, the Philippines, the USA, Sri
Lanka, and Thailand.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium: Similar to Azolla, Rhizobium is
also an atmospheric nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legumes. The rhizobial
genera include Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium.
• Diazotrophs: These also fix nitrogen in a number of crops. These
comprise aerobic chemolithotrophs (Thiobacillus, Desulfovibrio), amoebic
photoautotrophs (Rhodospirillaceae, Chromatiaceae, and Chlorobiaceae),
and aerobic to microaerobic heterotrophs (Azotobacteraceae and
Bacillaceae). In a number of crops, Corynebacteriaceae (Azotobacter)
and Spirillaceae (Azospirillum) are used.
• Cyanobacteria: Cyanobacteria or BGA can fix nitrogen and are used
for crops such as paddy, which grow in plenty of water.
• Phosphate solubilizing bacteria: These bacteria can solubilize
inorganic phosphates via metabolic activities. Some examples of
such bacteria include Bacillus sps., Pseudomonas sp., Brevibacterium sp.,
and Acrobacter acrogenes. Phosphate biofertilizers were first prepared
by scientists in the former USSR using Bacillus megaterium var.

phosphaticum as phosphate-solubilizing bacteria and the biofertilizer
was called “Phosphobacterin”. (See also Chapter 14, Section 14.4.)
In place of biofertilizers, vermicompost obtained from waste materials
can be used as fertilizer. The process is known as vermicomposting. The
procedure involves the following steps:
• A pit of suitable size is dug. A polythene sheet is uniformly spread
on its bottom surface, and a 3-inch layer of gravel and sand is spread
on the polythene sheet.
• A layer of coconut coir is uniformly spread on the polythene sheet.
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• The waste materials are mixed with cow dung, slurry, and a broth
culture of lignocellulolytic microorganisms (300 g/tonne) and spread
on the coconut coir. This makes about 6–8 inches in depth.
• A thin layer of well-rotten cow dung is spread over the waste
material.
• About 200 earthworms of species Eisenia fetida are put on the surface
of the cow dung.
• The pit is covered with a gunny bag in order to avoid loss because
of evaporation of water from the surface.
• From time to time, water is sprinkled in order to maintain a moisture
content of about 60% for the survival of microorganisms and
earthworms. The earthworms feed on the wastes and consume two
to three times their body weight and finally excrete mucus-coated
matter as vermicast. The vermicast consists of organic matter that
had undergone physical and chemical breakdown by the activity of
the muscular gizzard, which grinds to particle size of 1–2 microns.
• The compost gets matured in about 45–50 days.
• For large-scale preparation, a number of compost pits are used in
sequence. The pots must be covered with sheds to avoid direct
sunlight and rain water.
At the end of the composting process, the pits are flushed with water
and the liquid, known as vermiwash, is collected and used as fertilizer. The
nutrients in the vermicast or vermiwash are good sources of macro- and
micro-nutrients, vitamins, enzymes, and antibiotics. These nutrients are
taken up by plants. Vermicasts are applied in different doses in different
types of crops.
For a discussion on pesticides, see Chapter 14, Section 14.4.
15.4 Integrated Pest Management

The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) believes in the restriction

of pest population rather than their eradication. IPM does not preclude the
use of pesticides but uses them as one of the weapons, which are used in
combination with other procedures. IPM is a cheaper method of pest control
and does not upset the balance in nature. Besides, IPM considerably delays
the development of resistance in pests and also minimizes the hazards of
pesticide residues. Some IPM strategies are as follows:
• Biological methods: These methods involve the use of parasites,
predators, bacteria, viruses, and other biological agents for pest
control. They are highly sensitive, are harmless to beneficial insects
and humans, and have minimum adverse effects on the ecosystem
and the environment.
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• Sex pheromones: These are used to disrupt insect mating or to limit

them into traps containing pesticides and thus killing them.
• Insect growth regulators: These are biologically active compounds
that induce sterility in males when they are treated at a particular
period of their development. They upset the normal growth pattern
of insects and do not have any adverse effects on other animals or
humans.
• Plant products: Certain plant products, particularly neem derivatives,
are effective against a number of pest species.
• Pest-resistant crops: A number of pest-resistant crops are known.
The use of BT cotton, which is resistant to Bollworm, is a good
example.
• Legislative method: It has been found that in India, insects such as
San Jose scale on apple, tuber moth on potato and cotton, and cushion
scale on citrus are owing to the import of infected materials in the
country. Legislative methods and their effective implementation can
restrict the introduction of new pests in the country.
Summary
• Sewage, domestic wastes, and industrial wastes constitute more than
70% of soil pollutants.
• The solid waste that remains after sewage treatment is called
sludge.
• The recovery of resources is the most important step in the disposal
of wastes.
• Recycling and reuse of wastes also reduce the disposal of wastes. A
number of products can be recycled, such as paper, plastics, glass,
metals, and organic wastes.
• The steps involved in controlling urban wastes include source
reduction, recycling, and disposal.

• The best methods for the disposal of solid wastes are sanitary landfills
and incineration.
• Organic farming is the best method of farming. It involves agricultural
production through biofertilizers and biopesticides.
• Pests can be controlled through integrated pest management.
Exercise
1. The most important step in the disposal of solid wastes is
(a) Collection of wastes (b) Disposal
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(c) Recovery of resources (d) All of these

2. Biogas is obtained from
(a) Cattle dung
(b) Mud obtained after extraction of juice from sugar cane
(c) Discharge from tanneries
(d) All of these
3. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) Waste paper can be converted to good quality paper.
(b) The bagasse obtained in the manufacture of sugar is used as a
raw material in the paper and pulp industry.
(c) Plastic bags made of low-density polyethylene are difficult to
recycle.
(d) All are correct.
4. Organic farming involves using
(a) Biofertilizers (b) Biopesticides
(c) Vermicompost (d) All of these
Answers
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d)
1. How can sewage, domestic wastes, and industrial wastes be
controlled?
2. How is biogas obtained?
3. Write a note on recycling and reuse of wastes.
4. What control measures can be used for controlling urban wastes?
5. Write notes on
(a) Organic farming

(b) Integrated pest management
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Part V

Radioactive Pollution
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Chapter
16 Radioactive Pollution
16.1 Introduction
The process of spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei is
called radioactivity. This is accompanied by the emission of high-energy
radiation, such as alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The alpha particle is the
same as the nucleus of a helium atom with a charge of +2e and a mass of
+4u. The beta particle is of the same mass as electrons and is negatively
or positively charged. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of very
short wavelength. These are highly penetrating rays, with an energy range
of 10 keV to 10 million eV, and have neither charge nor mass. It should be
noted that among the three particles, gamma rays are the most penetrating,
but alpha radiation is the most damaging.
The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by Antoine Henri
Becquerel in 1896, who shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre
Curie and Marie Curie. Becquerel also showed that the radioactive emission
coming out of radium consisted of streams of electrons. The SI unit of
radioactivity was named Becquerel. One becquerel (Bq) is equal to the

quantity of the element producing one disintegration per second. The rate at
which radioisotopes disintegrate is not influenced by any chemical change
or changes in temperature, pressure, or by the effects of electric or magnetic
fields.
The effect of radiation on living tissue is measured by “rad”. One rad
is that amount of radiation that releases energy of 100 ergs per gram of
matter. An isotope of a chemical element exhibiting radioactivity is called
radioisotope. These are of two types: natural and artificial. Examples of
natural isotopes are 226Ra and 232Th. Examples of human-made radioisotopes
include 239Pu that are produced by bombarding stable atomic nuclei with
high-energy particles such as protons and deuterons.
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16.2 Radioactive Pollution
Radioactive pollution is the worst type of environmental pollution and is
responsible for untold misery to humans, leading ultimately to death. Living
organisms are continuously exposed to radiation from various sources that
include natural and artificial sources. During the testing of nuclear devices
above the ground, radioactive fallouts spread in the atmosphere in the form
of clouds. Radioactive fallouts consist mostly of radioisotopes, which spread
over a large surface and finally fall to the ground. The generated radioactive
dust affects humans via the food chain.
16.3 Sources of Radioactive Pollution

As already stated, living organisms are continuously exposed to sources of
radiation, both natural and anthropogenic.
16.3.1 Natural Sources of Radiation

Natural radiation includes solar rays, environment radiation, radionuclide
in the earth’s crust, and internal radiation.
• Solar radiation: The solar rays coming from the sun consist of
gamma rays, cosmic rays, and heavy particles. Cosmic rays from
the outer space enter the atmosphere. These affect people at higher
altitudes. However, cosmic rays, being highly energetic, reach the
earth’s surface and affect humans.
• Environment radiation: A large amount of radiation in the form of
alpha, beta, and gamma rays is released from naturally occurring
radioisotopes. In addition, radiations are also emitted by air, soil,
rocks, and groundwater. In the lithosphere, the naturally occurring
radioactive elements include uranium, thorium, radium, and isotopes
of potassium and carbon (14C). Uranium and thorium occur extensively
in nature and are contained in ores, rocks, soil, sea water, animals, and
plants. All these continuously emit radiations. Radioactive nuclides
also occur as a result of nuclear reactions between chemical elements
and neutrons.
• Radionuclide in the earth’s crust: A number of radioactive minerals
such as uranium (238U), thorium (232Th), and potassium (40K) are widely
distributed in the earth’s crust. All these give rise to the phenomenon
of terrestrial radioactivity. Water running through soil and rocks gets
contaminated with a number of radionuclides. Also during mining,
uranium (which on decay gives long-lived polonium and radio-lead)
enters the soil and groundwater. Natural disintegration of uranium
and thorium produces a number of radioisotopes, which differ in
their properties and energy of radiation. Crops grown on such soils
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Radioactive Pollution 241
contain radioactive elements such as 14C, 40K, 222Rn, and 252Th, which
human beings consume along with food. A person, on an average,
receives about 1 rad per year from terrestrial radiation. Studies have
shown that the natural background radiation of about 100 m.rem per
year has a detrimental effect on human health.
• Internal radiation: The human body contains minute quantities of
potassium ( 40K), uranium, thorium, strontium, and carbon. These
emit radiations. The radioactive elements that emit alpha and beta
particles are known as internal emitters. On the other hand, radioactive
substances emitting gamma rays are called external emitters. Gamma
rays are known to be highly penetrating and produce effects without
being absorbed inside the body. Some radionuclides that release
radiation in the body include Ca, Co, I, P, C, Fe, and Mn.
16.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation

Human-made sources of radiations include X-rays, radioisotopes, nuclear
tests, radioactive fallout, nuclear power plants, and other miscellaneous
sources.
• X-rays: These are used in radiotherapy for diagnostic purposes and
constitute about 18% of artificial radiations. Like gamma rays, X-rays
are also highly penetrating. Their exposure is cumulative in the body
and is responsible for chronic defects in internal organs. According to
a UN committee, radiations from X-rays account for diseases resulting
in genetic damage.
• Radioisotopes: The isotopes of chemical elements exhibiting
radioactivity are called radioisotopes. These are of two types: natural
(for example, 226Ra and 232Th) and anthropogenic (for example,
239
Pu). Human-made radioisotopes are produced by bombarding
stable atomic nuclei with high-energy particles such as protons and
deuterons.
Radioisotopes are administered to patients during radiotherapy

(nuclear medicine). The ability of the radiation from radioisotopes
to kill diseased cells without affecting the normal cells has made
them indispensable tools in the diagnosis and treatment of some
lethal diseases such as cancer. However, indiscriminate use of
radioisotopes, their overdose, and improper handling contribute to
nuclear pollution.
• Nuclear tests: Nuclear tests carried out by a number of countries have
affected the entire world. these tests are responsible for increased
radioactive pollution worldwide. This is because large quantities
of radionuclides have been released in the atmosphere, which get
distributed over wide geographical areas. In general, these tests
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include nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reactions. Uranium (235U)

and plutonium (239Pu) are utilized as fission materials and lighter
nuclei such as hydrogen and lithium are used as fusion elements.
In fission, chain reaction takes place and a huge quantity of energy
is released as heat, gamma rays, and neutrons. A large neutral
flux makes the surrounding environment radioactive. The source
of heat production is the kinetic energy of fission products such
as radionuclides of strontium (90Sr), caesium (133Cs), barium (141Ba),
and iodine (131I). The radioactive dust that falls on the earth after
nuclear tests (or nuclear explosions) is called radioactive fallout. These
radionuclides usually settle down with rain and get mixed with
soil, water, and vegetation. The radioactive materials get transferred
to plants, enter the food chain, and subsequently into the human
body.
• Radioactive fallout: As already stated, radioactive fallout arises from
testing nuclear weapons. Nuclear explosions in the air, on the ground,
under the ground, and below the sea are the major contributors of
radioactive radiation. Testing of a nuclear weapon on the ground
results in the dispersal of a large amount of fission products (14C, 90Sr,
131 137
I, Cs) in the atmosphere, which stay in the stratosphere for more
than 10 years. These radionuclides undergo further degradation and
spread all over the earth before settling down on the earth’s surface
as radioactive fallout and finally enter the food chain. This source of
radioactive pollution has been reduced because of the introduction of
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty signed by the USA, the USSR, and the UK in
1963, according to which only underground tests are permitted. The
situation can improve further when all the nuclear powers agree to
sign the treaty.
• Nuclear reactors: A major source of nuclear radiations, most nuclear
reactors use 92U235 as fuel. The natural abundance of this isotope
is only about 0.7%. The process of enrichment which increases the

concentration of this isotope up to about 3% generates a considerable
amount of radioactive waste. During the operation of a nuclear
reactor, the amount of 235U in the fuel rod decreases and the fission
products accumulate. After about 3 years, the rod no longer remains
an efficient source of heat and has to be replaced with a fresh fuel
rod. The fission of 235U gives radioactive forms of barium, strontium,
krypton, and xenon.
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In nuclear reactors, control rods used are made up of cadmium,

which absorb excess of neutrons and control the fission process.
Serious environmental problems arise after the spent fuel rods are
removed from the core of the reactor. The rod still contains reusable
fuel to the extent of about 1%, which can still be used after recovery.
Besides 235U, the spent rod also contains plutonium, which can also
be used as a nuclear fuel. The spent fuel rod still contains 1% 235U,
1% 239P, 2%–3% fission products, and 95%–96% 238U. Plutonium is
not initially present in the rod but is formed from 238U, as shown
below.
238
Bombardment
92U + 0n1 92U
239
by neutron
excited nucleus
Emission of a
239 239
92U beta particle 93Np + 1e0
Emission of
93Np
239
94P
239
+ 1e0
another beta particle
The separated plutonium can be used for the manufacture of atom

bomb.
• Radiations from nuclear power plants: A large number of nuclear
power plants are being operated all over the world for fulfilling
energy requirements. The energy is released by nuclear fission and
nuclear fusion reactions. The total mass of products in a nuclear
reaction is always less than the total mass of the reactants. The mass
lost is converted into energy according to Einstein’s equation
E = mc2
where E is the energy, m is the mass, and c is the velocity of light.

As the velocity of light is very high, even small losses of mass are
converted into huge amounts of energy. The energy obtained from
a nuclear reaction is million times larger, compared to the energy
obtained from the combustion of coal. For example 1 kg of 235U
releases energy equal to that obtained by burning 3 million tonnes
of coal.
Currently, most of the nuclear energy is derived by the means of
fission process, as shown in Figure 16.1.
As seen, large amounts of radioactive fission products are released
from nuclear power plants. These fission products, unless handled
properly, can massively contribute to environmental pollution.
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Figure 16.1 Fission process
• Miscellaneous sources of radioactive pollution: The other sources

of radioactive pollutants are as follows:
▪ Processing of radioactive ores: Mining and refining of radioactive
ores constitute the first step in nuclear technology. The most
important radioactive ores are ores of uranium (pitchblende) and
thorium. These ores emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. The
disintegration products from these ores are 88Ra226 and 82Pb210,
which are extremely toxic and emit radiation. During mining,
the released effluents enter public water. The most dangerous
radionuclide in the aquatic environment is 226Ra. Also the dust
released from uranium and thorium ores has highly deleterious
effects on living organisms.
▪ Use of radioactive materials for research: Radionuclides have
been administered to patients for medical diagnosis in radiation
therapy and research. There is considerable leakage from the
devices that utilize radionuclides, which causes environmental
pollution. Leakage also occurs in industries that manufacture

these devices.
▪ Nuclear accidents: During World War II, the first nuclear bomb
(the atom bomb) was dropped by the USA on the two Japanese
towns— Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Both these bombs killed
millions of people and caused untold misery to thousands. In
fact, the two atom bombs completely wiped out Hiroshima and
Nagasaki.
A hydrogen bomb was exploded in 1954 on Bikini Island in the
Pacific Ocean. The radioactive fallout adversely affected the crew of
the Japanese fishing boat — The Lucky Dragon — about 150 km from
the explosion site. A large number of people were killed, hospitalized,
and were untraceable.
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A major fire broke out at the Windscale plutonium production

plant at Sellafield, the UK in 1959. It contaminated the vegetation and
milk supplies of the adjoining areas because of leakage of radiation.
This accident was kept confidential for about 30 years. Subsequently
in 1973, the plant was shut down.
In 1957–58, the USA, the UK, and the Soviet Union detonated
nuclear weapons, which were equal to about 4200 Hiroshima-
sized atom bombs and were responsible for severe environmental
degradation.
A nuclear accident occurred on 28 March 1979 at the Three Mile
Island nuclear plant in Harrisburg, the USA. About 10,000 people were
evacuated from surrounding area. The accident released radioisotopes
and radiation into the environment.
The nuclear explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in the Soviet
Ukraine on 26 April 1986 was the worst nuclear disaster till date. The
temperature of the core became very high, and the graphite in the
core caught fire and melted part of the fuel. The built-up pressure
of hydrogen, led to the blow up of the 1000-tonne concrete lid of the
reactor. A cloud of radioactive particles was produced, which went
up to about 5000 ft in the atmosphere. The accident became known
to the public only when high levels of radioactivity were recorded
by workers of a nuclear power plant in Sweden. A number of people
suffered from acute radiation sickness and 31 people died. People
suffered from diseases such as leukaemia and thyroid cancer because
of radiation exposure. The vegetation in an area around 7 km of the
plant was severely damaged.
In March 2011, an earthquake struck in Tohoku region (Japan)
of Pacific Ocean. The earthquake turned into a nuclear disaster
when explosions occurred in three nuclear reactors because of the
hydrogen gas that had built up within the containment building.
These accidents released a considerable amount of radioactivity in

the atmosphere.
The ash and dust resulting from nuclear blasts enter the stratosphere
and block the sunlight from reaching the earth. This cools the earth
and is characterized by dark and overcast sky lasting for many
weeks. A number of environmental consequences arise because of
occurrence of nuclear episodes. This phenomenon is referred to as
nuclear winter.
16.4 Effects of Radioactive Pollution

The harmful effects of radioactive pollution were observed for the first time
in the beginning of the 19th century. It was found that radiologists and
scientists who operated X-ray machines on radiation, suffered from tumours
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on their hands. Subsequently, it was observed that radiologists suffered from

high incidence of leukaemia. It was also discovered that painters who used
radium paint for painting the dials of watches were more likely to develop
bone tumour.
The harmful effects of radiation on humans are because of the ability
of radiation to ionize and destroy the organic molecules of cells in the
body. The damage caused depends on the energy and type of radiation.
The energy is expressed in rads (1 rad is the absorption of 100 erg or 10−8
J of energy per gram of tissue). The total biological effect of radiation is
expressed in rems.
Number of rems = n × number of rads
where n is 1 for β, γ radiations and X-rays, and 10 for α radiation or high-
energy neutrons.
Table 16.1 gives the effects observed in humans after exposure to a single
dose of radiation at various levels.
Even small doses of radiation over longer periods of time can have
serious consequences. Radiation is also known to produce mutations in
plants and animals as it brings about changes in chromosomes. Genetic
defects also arise in humans as a result of radiation exposure. Congenital
defects were observed in the children born to mothers who survived the
Nagasaki and Hiroshima bombings.
Radioactive rays consist mainly of a, b, and g radiations and X-rays, all
of which affect different parts of the human body (Table 16.2).
On striking the human body, radioactive radiations penetrate the
tissues and transfer their energy, thus damaging the cell molecules. The
cell functions are disrupted, causing their death. In all such cases, the
DNA mutates. Radiation effects are passed from generation to generation.
Radiations may produce carcinogenic effects, mutagenic effects (change in
the genetic material, which can pass to offspring), and teratogenic effects
(which affect the development of embryo).
Food crops grown in soil containing radioactive fallouts and drinking

water percolating through such soil enter the human body via food chain
Table 16.1 Effects of exposure to a single dose of radiation

Dose (rems) Effect
0–25 No effect
25–50 Slight decrease in white blood cell count
50–100 More decrease in white blood cell count
100–200 Vomiting, nausea, hair, loss
200–500 Ulceration, haemorrhage, and possible death
>500 Can be fatal, may cause immediate death
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Table 16.2 Effect of different types of radiation on body

Radiation type Effect on human body
a rays: The a-particle is the same as the They can travel in air only for a few centimetres; in
nucleus of a helium atom with a charge of living tissues, they can travel only 30 µnm and so
+2e and mass of +4u. Its velocity is 0.05 times cross only three cells. They are virtually harmless.
that of light.
b rays: The b-particle has the same mass They can travel for about 8 cm in air and about
as electron and is negatively or positively 1 cm in tissue. b particle can penetrate skin but
charged. b-rays move at high velocities in the does not reach the underlying tissue. They can
range of 0.3–0.99 times that of light. cause damage only to skin, resulting in skin cancer
and eye cataract.
g rays: g rays have very short wavelength g rays travel up to 1000 m in air and penetrate
and are highly penetrating with an energy of the body and pass through it. It is known to cause
10 keV to 10 million eV. They have neither mutation of cells.
charge nor mass and are similar to X-rays.
X-rays: The wavelength of X-rays varies from X-rays can travel extremely far and pass through
10 –5 Å to 10 –3 Å. the body tissues, except bones. They can cause
damage to cells.
and drinking water, causing numerous problems. Also the milk of cows
and buffaloes that consume contaminated vegetation is extremely harmful
to humans.
Exposure to radioactive radiations for a considerable time results in
severe health effects. These are as follows:
• High doses of ionizing radiation to the brain and the central nervous
system (CNS) cause delirium, convulsion, and death within hours.
• Eyes develop cataracts.
• Vomiting, bleeding of gums, and ulceration in mouth are observed
in the case of acute radiation sickness.
• Red spots are observed on the skin because of internal bleeding and
damage to blood vessels.
• Exposure of gastrointestinal track results in nausea and vomiting

within 2–5 h.
• In the early stage of pregnancy, unborn children (foetus) may suffer
from brain damage. This may also result in mental retardation if the
exposure occurs during the formation of the CNS.
• Ovaries and testes are affected and can result in infertility.
• The bone marrow is affected and the immune system may become
weak.
Radionuclides affect various organs of the human body (Table 16.3).
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Table 16.3 Organs affected by radionuclides
Radionuclide Organ(s) affected
Radium-226 Bones
Radon-222 Lungs
Iodine-131 Thyroid
Krypton-85 Ovaries
Cobalt-60 Liver
Potassium-42 Muscles
Sulphur-35 Skin
16.5 Protection and Control Measures

Natural sources of radiation cannot be controlled. However, efforts should
be made to decrease the extent of radioactive pollution from anthropogenic
sources. People handling radioactive substances must take adequate
precautions to prevent exposure. For instance gloves should be used for
the protection of hands, special footwear should be worn to protect the feet,
goggles having transparent thermoplastic glass such as Plexiglass should
be worn for protection of eyes, and respirators for protection of respiratory
organs.
During experiments with sources of radioactive radiations, utensils and
appliances become contaminated. Even the laboratory furniture may be
contaminated. It is better to cover the working surfaces with readily soluble
hydrophobic paints. Such surfaces can be decontaminated by removing the
painted finish with a solvent. The decontamination procedure depends on
the nature of the radioisotope. Table 16.4 lists some decontaminants used
for the decontamination of skin, equipment, and working surface.
Table 16.4 Materials used for decontamination
Removal of radioactive isotopes of elements Decontaminating agent used in aqueous solution
Zn, Ce, La, Ba, Be, Fe, Ca, Ag 20% EDTA
Zn, Sn, Cu, Pu, U 20% detergent
Bi, Mo, Te, U, P 20% NaHCO3, 20% detergent
Mn, Au, U, Zn, Po, La 1% HCl
Ag, Tl 1% sodium hydrosulphite
Ag, Bi, Cu, Hg, Po 2% detergent, 2% thiourea

EDTA – ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
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If an accident occurs in the laboratory, the following procedure must be

followed:
• The place of accident should be localized.
• Contamination of hands and body should be checked.
• If the maximum permissible levels of contamination exceed, these
should be checked.
• The hands and body should be decontaminated.
• In the case of fire, a gas mask or respirator should be worn.
• All radioactive liquids should be collected by using an absorbing
material such as paper and saw dust, and designated as radioactive
waste.
16.5.1 Preventive Measures for Radiation Exposure

Exposure to radiation must be prevented by taking adequate precautions,
some of which are described as follows:
• Nuclear devices should not be tested in the air. If necessary, these
should be tested underground.
• The production of radioisotopes should be minimized as these cannot
be rendered harmless through any mechanism.
• A minimum number of nuclear installations should be
commissioned.
• In nuclear laboratories, radioisotopes should be handled under a jet
of soil or water.
• In nuclear mines, wet drilling should be employed along with
underground drainage.
• Radioactive waste should be carefully disposed of.
• Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should be used when
absolutely essential.
• Radioactive operation should be conducted by remaining at a safe

distance from the source.
• The duration of exposure to persons handling radioactive materials
should be minimized.
• Shielding can minimize the radiation dose while working with
radionuclides.
• X-rays are routinely used for diagnosis. It is advisable to reduce the
number of X-ray examinations. If possible, X-rays should be replaced
with radiography.
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16.6 Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Radioactivity is generated from various processes such as power generation
from nuclear reactors, testing of nuclear devices, and hospitals and research
institutions dealing will radioisotopes. Radioactive wastes are also obtained
as tailings. These wastes are dangerously harmful to humans and must be
stored safely. The best method is storing such wastes in geologic formations.
For this, a proper storage site must be identified. The site must meet the
criteria of ground stability and slow movement of groundwater. There
should be no variation in climates, groundwater flow, erosion, and earth
movement in such sites. Most of the geologic formations must remain
undisturbed for millions of years. The radioactive wastes should be buried
in repositories (storage facility), which must be at least 600 m below the
earth’s surface. They must be packed in containers, which should be durable,
leak resistant, and corrosion resistant. The bottom of the secure landfill is
lined with compacted clay using gravel. Clay is flexible and resists cracking
if there is shifting of ground. A thick polythene sheet is placed over the layer
of gravel. A layer of absorbent cushions the inner layers. The radioactive
wastes are packed in drums and put into the landfill, which is finally
covered with clay, plastic, and soil. Vegetation is then placed for stabilizing
the surface and improving the appearance. A diagrammatic representation
of a landfill is shown in Figure 16.2.
Figure 16.2 A schematic diagram of a secure landfill
Summary
• The process of spontaneous degradation of unstable atomic nuclei is
called radioactivity.
• Radioactive rays consist of alpha, beta, gamma, and X-rays. Gamma
rays are the most damaging.
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• Radioactive pollution is the worst type of environmental pollution

and is responsible for untold misery to humans, leading ultimately
to death.
• Sources of radioactive pollution can be natural or man made.
• The man-made sources of radioactive pollution are radioisotopes,
nuclear tests, radioactive fallouts, nuclear reactors, nuclear power
plants, and nuclear accidents.
• Radioactive pollution from man-made sources can be reduced by
taking adequate precautions.
• Disposal of radioactive wastes should be done in secure landfills.
Exercise
1. Radioactivity is a nuclear property and is not influenced by
(a) Concentration of the substance
(b) Heat
(c) Pressure
(d) Magnetism
(e) All of these
2. Which of the following is the most disastrous?
(a) Uranium (b) Thorium (c) Radium (d) Plutonium
3. Maximum penetrating power is exhibited by
(a) a-particles (b) b-particles (c) g-rays (d) All of these
4. Radionuclides contaminate
(a) Air (b) Water (c) Soil (d) All of these
5. Natural radioactive elements are present in
(a) Soil (b) Rocks (c) Earth’s crust (d) All of these
6. Radioisotopes enter the environment through

(a) Fallout from nuclear tests (b) Radioactive wastes
(c) Nuclear installations (d) All of these
7. Ionizing radiation can cause
(a) Breast cancer (b) Leukaemia
(c) Lung cancer (d) All of these
Answers
1. (e) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d)
5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d)
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1. What do you understand by the term radioactivity?
2. Describe the sources of radioactive pollution.
3. What are the effects of radioactive pollution?
4. How can one protect oneself from radioactive pollution?
5. What control measures can be taken to prevent radiation exposure?
6. How is radioactive waste disposed of?
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Part VI
Environmental Toxicology
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Chapter
Environmental
17 Toxicology
17.1 Introduction
Environmental toxicology deals with the study of harmful effects of toxic
chemicals in the environment. The discharge of toxic chemicals into air,
water, and soil disturbs the ecosystem which has a detrimental effect on
human beings, plants, and animals. From the environment, toxic chemicals
get into the human food chain and subsequently enter the biological system,
leading to disturbance in the biochemical process and causing fatality in
some cases. The study is helpful in taking preventive measures.
A number of pollutants in air, water, and soil are toxic. These pollutants
are classified as toxic metal pollutants, toxic gaseous pollutants, and toxic
organic pollutants. All these pollutants are responsible for causing serious
health hazards. These pollutants exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms.
Examples of gaseous pollutants include CO, Cl2, CoCl2, H2S, AsH3, SbH3.
These are generally absorbed via skin or eyes or through inhalation. Liquid
toxic pollutants include organic solvents having boiling points less than
120°C. These affect skin and cause problems when inhaled. Solid pollutants
include mostly metals.
Besides the aforementioned types of pollutants, air pollutants also
include particulates and asbestos fibres. Particulates, particularly those
having size less than 2.5 µm, are responsible for increased risk of premature
deaths. These particles have a number of chemicals adsorbed onto their
surfaces, including known or suspected mutagens and carcinogens, and
can be inhaled deep into the lungs (for more details, refer to Chapter 5,
Section 5.6). Inhalation of asbestos is responsible for mesothelioma, a rare
cancer associated with exposure to asbestos. Some other pollutants include
pesticides, plastics, and persistent organic pollutants.
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17.2 Chemicals in the Environment

Of the number of chemicals present in the environment, many of the
chemicals that are considered environmental hazards are also dietary trace
elements, required for normal growth of living beings. These elements
include Al, Sb, As, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, In, Pb, Mo, Ag, Te, Sn, Ti, W, U, and
Zn. It is the concentration — higher or low — of an element which makes
it toxic or non-toxic.
The well-known toxic elements such as As, Pb, and Cd are also required
for the growth of animals. A typical example is that of aluminium, which
is biologically inert but is responsible for brain damage and anaemia in
patients who drink water containing 100–1000 parts per billion (ppb) of
aluminium.
In fact, everyone is exposed to toxic chemicals every day at home,
workplace, and outdoors. Workers engaged in construction of roads and
automobile engines are exposed to particulate matter along with other
pollutants. Farm workers are exposed to agrochemicals, particularly
pesticides. In office, people come in contact with toxic chemicals contained
in photocopiers, toners, correction fluids, and so on.
The presence of toxic chemicals in the environment makes it necessary
the study of environmental toxicity.
17.2.1 Toxic Chemicals in Air

The major air pollutants include oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur,
particulate matter, and metallic pollutants, which are responsible for serious
health hazards. It is necessary to control and monitor these pollutants (for
more details, refer to Chapter 5). The monitoring of particulate matter in the
atmosphere is done as detailed in Chapter 5, Section 5.6. Metallic pollutants,
especially toxic metals, are the most harmful pollutants. Besides air, these
pollutants are also present in water. Table 17.1 gives the threshold limits
of selected toxic metals. Harmful effects of toxic metals on humans are

discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
Of the elements listed in Table 17.1, 17 metals are known to be toxic:
Be, Os, Hg, Pt, Tl, V, Cu, Te, U, Se, Pb, As, Sb, Cr, Ni, Zn, and Mn. Some
of these metals are also found as pollutants in water, industrial effluents,
solid waste, and sewage. Some metals are also emitted from other sources,
for example, wastewater from electroplating units (Cr, Ni), emission from
fluorescent lamps (Cd, Be), paint and pigment industry (Pb, Cr), thermal
power plants (Hg), and chlor-alkali industry (Hg).
Apart from these metallic pollutants (Table 17.1), some international
environmental organizations such as the US Environmental Protection
Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and Consumer
Products Safety Commission have identified 24 extremely hazardous
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Table 9.1 Sources and amounts (percentage) of water on earth

indispensable nutrient for living organisms. It constitutes about 50%–60% of

9.2 Properties of Water

Table 9.2 Principal physical properties of water

Density (g/mL, 3.98°C) 1.0a

Table 9.2 Contd...

Critical temperature (°C) 374.0

9.3 Potable and Non-potable Water

9.4 Water Contaminants

• Arsenic reaches waterbodies via erosion of natural deposits, copper

Table 9.3 Drinking water specifications (IS: 10500, 1992)

Parameter IS: 10500 requirement Undesirable effect beyond IS: 10500

Dissolved solids 500 Palatability decreases and 2000

Table 9.3 Contd...

Parameter IS: 10500 requirement Undesirable effect beyond IS: 10500

9.5 Hard and Soft Water

the presence of Na salts does not contribute to the hardness of water.

Permanent hardness of water is caused by the presence of chlorides

An anion exchange resin performs the function of holding the anions

Hard water is first passed through a cation exchange resin, which

(e) All are correct.

B. Short Answer Questions

aquifers are replenished naturally by rainwater that percolates through soil

10.2 Types of Water Pollutants

10.2.1 Biological Agents

other anthropogenic activities.

Table 10.1 Major water pollutants, their sources, and effects

Table 10.1 Contd...

A major problem associated with agricultural run-off is eutrophication

does not occur in flowing water.

10.3 Water Pollution in Various Waterbodies

(i) Point source: A point source discharges pollutants/effluents through

10.3.2 Groundwater Pollution

Table 10.2 Sources of freshwater pollution

Groundwater gets polluted owing to seepage of domestic, industrial, and

Table 10.4 Sources of groundwater contamination

10.3.3 Marine Pollution

10.3.3.1 Harmful effects of marine pollution

10.3.3.2 Control of oil pollution in seas

10.4 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution

10.4.1 Minamata Disease (Effect of Mercury Poisoning)

10.4.2 Itai-itai Disease (Effect of Cadmium Poisoning)

were osteomalacia, accompanied by osteoporosis and multiple renal tubular

10.4.3 Effect of Nitrate Contamination in Drinking Water

conditions (alkaline conditions of the intestines). Nitrite, once reaching the

Table 10.5 Concentration of fluoride and its impacts

Worldwide, the Indo–Bangladesh region is the worst affected by arsenic

Table 10.6 Arsenic dosage and related effects in biological system

peripheral nervous systems, including subencephalopathic neurological and

breakdown products affect the breeding process of birds. Many marine

• Pollutants in water can be biological agents, chemical agents, and

2. The most serious pollution in water is

7. Discuss the harmful effects of water pollution.

11.2 Sewage and Domestic Wastes

these waterbodies lose their self-regulating capacity that leads to severe

11.2.1 Harmful Effects of Sewage and Domestic Wastes

11.3 Industrial Effluents

The oxidizing and fermentable matter present in sewage causes depletion

reduced to nitrite (which is toxic in nature) by intestinal bacteria. The

Table 11.1 Effects of metal pollution on humans

cancer, ulcers in gastrointestinal tract, damage to kidney

11.8.1 Effects of Thermal Pollution

8000 [Molarity  of Na2S2O3 solution/Volume of Na2S2O3 solution]