Handbook of Motivation at School

Handbook of Motivation at School
The second edition of the Handbook of Motivation at School presents an integrated

compilation of theory and research in the field. With chapters by leading experts, this
book covers the major theoretical perspectives in the field as well as their application
to instruction, learning, and social adjustment at school. Section I focuses on theoreti-
cal perspectives and major constructs, Section II on contextual and social influences on
motivation, and Section III on new directions in the field.
This new edition will have the same popular organizational structure with theories
at the beginning. It will also include new chapters that cover motivation as it relates to
identity, culture, test anxiety, mindfulness, neuroscience, parenting, metacognition, and
regulatory focus.
Kathryn R. Wentzel is Professor of Human Development in the Department of Human

Development and Quantitative Methodology at the University of Maryland, College Park.
David B. Miele is Buehler Sesquicentennial Assistant Professor in the Counseling, Devel-

opmental, and Educational Psychology Department in the Lynch School of Education at
Boston College.
Educational Psychology Handbook Series
Series Editor: Patricia A. Alexander
International Handbook of Research on Conceptual Change, Second Edition

Edited by Stella Vosniadou
The International Guide to Student Achievement

Edited by John Hattie and Eric M. Anderman
The International Handbook of Collaborative Learning

Edited by Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver, Clark A. Chinn, Carol Chan, and Angela M. O’Donnell
Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance

Edited by Barry J. Zimmerman and Dale H. Schunk
Handbook of Research on Learning and Instruction

Edited by Patricia A. Alexander and Richard E. Mayer

Edited by Kathryn Wentzel and Allan Wigfield
International Handbook of Research on Conceptual Change

Edited by Stella Vosniadou
Handbook of Moral and Character Education

Edited by Larry P. Nucci and Darcia Narvaez
Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools, Second Edition

Edited by Michael Furlong, Rich Gilman, and E. Scott Huebner
Handbook of Emotions in Education

Edited by Reinhard Pekrun and Lisa Linnenbrink-Garcia
Handbook of Moral and Character Education

Edited by Larry Nucci, Tobias Krettenauer, and Darcia Narvaez
International Handbook of Research on Teachers’ Beliefs

Edited by Helenrose Fives and Michelle Gregoire Gill
Second Edition
Edited by
Kathryn R. Wentzel and David B. Miele
Second edition published 2016
by Routledge
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© 2016 Taylor & Francis
The right of Kathryn R. Wentzel and David B. Miele to be identified as authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted by them in
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2009
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ISBN: 978-1-138-77620-3 (pbk)
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CONTENTS
Contributorsix
Acknowledgmentsxi
Chapter 1 Overview 1
K AT H RY N R . W E N T Z E L A N D DAV I D B . M I E L E
Section I MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

AND CONSTRUCTS 9
Chapter 2 Attribution Theory and Motivation in School 11

S A N D R A G R A H A M A N D A P R I L Z . TAY L O R
Chapter 3 Self-Efficacy Theory in Education 34

DA L E H . S C H U N K A N D M A R I A K . D i B E N E D E T T O
Chapter 4 Expectancy-Value Theory 55

A L L A N W I G F I E L D, S T E P H E N M . T O N K S , A N D S U S A N LU T Z K L AU DA
Chapter 5 Achievement Goal Theory: A Story of Early Promises,

Eventual Discords, and Future Possibilities 75
C O RW I N S E N KO
Chapter 6 Facilitating and Hindering Motivation, Learning,

and Well-Being in Schools: Research and
Observations from Self-Determination Theory 96
R I C H A R D M . RYA N A N D E D WA R D L . D E C I
Chapter 7 Academic Emotions 120

R E I N H A R D P E K RU N
v
vi • Contents
Chapter 8 Engagement and Disaffection as Central to Processes of

Motivational Resilience and Development 145
ELLEN A. SKINNER
Chapter 9 The Development of Self-Regulated Learning during Secondary

School Years: A Social Cognitive Instructional Perspective 169
A N A S TA S I A K I T S A N TA S A N D T I M O T H Y J . C L E A RY
Chapter 10 Positioning Interest and Curiosity within a Model of Academic

Development188
PAT R I C I A A . A L E X A N D E R A N D E M I LY M . G R O S S N I C K L E
Section II CONTEXTUAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES

ON MOTIVATION 209
Chapter 11 Teacher-Student Relationships 211

K AT H RY N R . W E N T Z E L
Chapter 12 School-Based Peer Relationships and Achievement Motivation 231

J A A N A J U VO N E N A N D C A S E Y K N I F S E N D
Chapter 13 Learning Environments and Motivation 251

AV I K A P L A N A N D H E L E N PAT R I C K
Chapter 14 Culture and Motivation: The Road Travelled and the Way Ahead 275
RONNEL B. KING AND DENNIS M. McINERNEY
Chapter 15 Motivation and Identity 300

A L L I S O N M A S T E R , S A P N A C H E RYA N , A N D A N D R E W N . M E LT Z O F F
Chapter 16 Gender and Motivation 320

H E L E N M . G . WAT T
Chapter 17 Teacher Motivation: Self-Efficacy and Goal Orientation 340

HELENROSE FIVES AND MICHELLE M. BUEHL
Section III NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE FIELD 361
Chapter 18 Self-Regulation of Motivation 363

DAV I D B . M I E L E A N D A B I G A I L A . S C H O L E R
Chapter 19 Mindfulness in Students’ Motivation and Learning in School 385

R O B E R T W. R O E S E R
Contents • vii
Chapter 20 Math Anxiety: Causes, Consequences, and Remediation 408

ERIN A. MALONEY
Chapter 21 Neuroscientific Contributions to Motivation in Education 424

J O H N M A R S H A L L R E E V E A N D WO O G U L L E E
Chapter 22 A Multiple Goals Perspective on Academic Motivation 440

M A N F R E D H O F E R A N D S T E FA N F R I E S
Chapter 23 Parental Involvement and Children’s Motivation

and Achievement: A Domain-Specific Perspective 459
M E R E D I T H L . R O W E , G E E T H A B . R A M A N I , A N D E VA M . P O M E R A N T Z
Chapter 24 The Origins and Educational Implications of

Promotion-Focused and Prevention-Focused
Achievement Motivations 477
DA N I E L C . M O L D E N A N D E M I LY Q . R O S E N Z W E I G
Author Index 505

Subject Index 525
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CONTRIBUTORS
Patricia A. Alexander, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Method-

ology, University of Maryland, College Park; Learning, Development, and Professional
Practice, Auckland University
Michelle M. Buehl, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason
University
Sapna Cheryan, Department of Psychology, University of Washington
Timothy J. Cleary, Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology, Rutgers
University
Edward L. Deci, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University
of Rochester
Maria K. DiBenedetto, Bishop McGuinness Catholic High School
Helenrose Fives, College of Education and Human Services, Montclair State University
Stefan Fries, Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University
Sandra Graham, Department of Education, University of California, Los Angeles
Emily M. Grossnickle, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Method-
ology, University of Maryland, College Park
Manfred Hofer, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Mannheim
Jaana Juvonen, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles
Avi Kaplan, College of Education, Temple University
Ronnel B. King, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Hong Kong Institute
of Education, Hong Kong
Anastasia Kitsantas, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason
University
Susan Lutz Klauda, Silver Spring, MD
ix
x • Contributors
Casey Knifsend, Department of Psychology, California State University, Sacramento

Woogul Lee, Department of Education, Korea National University of Education, Chun-
gbuk, Korea
Erin A. Maloney, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago
Allison Master, Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, University of Washington
Dennis M. McInerney, Department of Special Education and Counselling, The Hong
Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Andrew N. Meltzoff, Department of Psychology and Institute for Learning & Brain Sci-
ences, University of Washington
David B. Miele, Department of Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychol-
ogy, Boston College
Daniel C. Molden, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University
Helen Patrick, Department of Educational Studies, Purdue University
Reinhard Pekrun, Department of Psychology, University of Munich
Eva M. Pomerantz, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Geetha B. Ramani, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodol-
ogy, University of Maryland, College Park
Johnmarshall Reeve, Department of Education, Korea University
Robert W. Roeser, Department of Psychology, Portland State University
Emily Q. Rosenzweig, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Method-
ology, University of Maryland, College Park
Meredith L. Rowe, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University
Richard M. Ryan, Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic
University
Abigail A. Scholer, Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo
Dale H. Schunk, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Corwin Senko, Psychology Department, State University of New York, New Paltz
Ellen A. Skinner, Department of Psychology, Portland State University
April Z. Taylor, Department of Child and Adolescent Development, California State
University, Northridge
Stephen M. Tonks, Department of Leadership, Educational Psychology, and Founda-
tions, Northern Illinois University
Helen M. G. Watt, Faculty of Education, Monash University
Kathryn R. Wentzel, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodol-
ogy, University of Maryland, College Park
Allan Wigfield, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology,
University of Maryland, College Park
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to extend our thanks to the many people who made this Handbook pos-
sible. First, without the expertise and generosity of the authors who contributed their
work to the Handbook, this undertaking would have been impossible. We owe them
our thanks and gratitude for the excellent chapters that constitute this volume and for
their ongoing scholarship concerning how and why children are motivated at school. We
also gratefully acknowledge Patricia Alexander, the series editor, and Rebecca Novack at
Taylor & Francis for their initial encouragement and ongoing support of this project.
Finally, we thank Katherine Muenks, who made our work so much easier with her edito-
rial assistance.
Kathryn R. Wentzel
University of Maryland, College Park
David B. Miele
Boston College
xi
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1
OVERVIEW
Kathryn R. Wentzel and David B. Miele
The academic lives of children are challenging and complex. In line with the mission of
schooling, children are expected to engage in academic activities, learn from instruction,
and meet standards of intellectual competency established by others. Children also are
expected to adhere to classroom rules, maintain and establish new relationships with
classmates and adults, and participate in activities as members of their school commu-
nity. Central to understanding children’s success at these activities is motivation, typically
defined as a set of interrelated desires, goals, needs, values, and emotions that explain the
initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of behavior.
Reflecting on this definition, the authors in the first edition of the Handbook (see
Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009) provided accounts of motivation based on social cognitive
theories and constructs such as individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs and expectancies for suc-
cess, their causal attributions and beliefs about intelligence, and their sense of auton-
omy within various academic contexts. In addition, authors devoted discussion to a
rich and extensive literature concerning why students strive to achieve specific academic
outcomes, focusing on constructs such as goals, standards for performance, emotions,
values, interest, and orientations toward learning and performance. Beliefs about inter-
personal belongingness and emotional connectedness to others, beliefs concerning what
one is supposed to do based on a sense of moral or social obligation, and perceptions of
broader social and cultural expectations concerning intellectual as well as social compe-
tencies were also presented as central components of students’ motivation at school. This
focus on motivation as a characteristic of the individual was also extended to include
frameworks specifying developmental, ecological, and socialization factors that can
influence students’ motivational beliefs and intentions.
Our vision for the second edition of the Handbook was to provide the same detailed
scholarly overview of the current state of theory and research in the field but to also
challenge our readers with new directions and provocations for future scholarship on
motivation at school. With these objectives in mind, the current edition presents a com-
prehensive overview of current theories and research on motivation at school, as well as
a broad survey of social and contextual factors that influence students’ motivation. In
addition, it includes for the first time a compilation of chapters that are forward looking
1
2 • Kathryn R. Wentzel and David B. Miele
and thought provoking in their consideration of nontraditional approaches to the study

of motivation at school.
A central theme of this Handbook is motivation in school settings. The complex
nature of these settings is reflected in the fact that children come to school with many
goals they wish to achieve that reflect learning and intellectual development, social and
interpersonal concerns, and affective functioning. Educators aim to promote the suc-
cessful accomplishment of all these goals, not just those that pertain to intellectual devel-
opment. Therefore, the authors of this Handbook speak not only to issues surrounding
motivation to achieve academically but also to issues that concern social competence and
connectedness to classmates and teachers, or that pertain to the development of a healthy
sense of identity and emotional well-being. A related theme is reflected in the growing
literature on the diverse contextual factors that promote motivation at school, or at times
impede its growth. In this regard, the field has enjoyed an increased focus on social sup-
ports and broader cultural processes that play a role in motivating students at school.
Scholars in this area have heightened awareness of how socialization processes known
to promote social and affective development in nonacademic settings can also provide
a foundation for the development of motivational processes associated with learning
and academic outcomes in school settings. Included in this discussion are ways in which
students are able (or unable) to adapt to educational contexts that often promote values
or interpersonal styles that are incongruent with those of their family, community, or
culture.
Finally, future directions that were anticipated in the first edition of the Handbook are
now coming to fruition (see Wentzel & Wigfield, 2009). For example, we are pleased to
include in this volume new and exciting work that has emerged from social psychological
studies of motivation (see chapters by Miele and Scholer, and Molden and Rosenzweig).
Emerging work on the neurological and physiological bases of motivation and engage-
ment is also represented in this volume, as illustrated in the chapter on math anxiety by
Maloney, the chapter on mindfulness by Roeser, and the chapter on neuroscience and
motivation by Reeve and Lee. Additionally, the chapter by Rowe, Ramani, and Pomer-
antz describes advancements in the area of parenting that provide greater insight into
motivation and learning in early childhood. And, Hofer and Fries present research that
addresses relatively complex motivational issues, such as how students deal with conflicts
between multiple self-processes and goals.
OVERVIEW OF THE VOLUME

The Handbook is divided into three sections: Section I: Major Theoretical Perspectives
and Constructs; Section II: Contextual and Social Influences on Motivation; and Section
III: New Directions in the Field.
Section I
Authors in the first section present overviews of the major theoretical perspectives that
address children’s motivation at school, its antecedents, and development. These theories
encompass the beliefs, values, goals, and needs that have been the focus of much of the
research on achievement motivation over the last several decades, with updated chapters
on attributions for success and failure (Graham and Taylor), self-efficacy beliefs (Schunk
and DiBenedetto), expectancies and values for different achievement activities (Wigfield,
Tonks, and Klauda), self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci), and emotions (Pekrun).
Overview • 3
New chapters provide perspectives on goals for learning and achievement (Senko), self-
regulated learning (Kitsantaas and Cleary), engagement and disaffection (Skinner), and
interest and curiosity (Alexander and Grossnickle).
Authors in this section present their theoretical perspective, explain how it has evolved
over time, discuss theoretical and methodological challenges, and identify new directions
in their specific area of scholarship. In the first chapter, Graham and Taylor present a
clear and concise overview of attribution theory, including a review of research on the
antecedents and consequences of attributions for intrapersonal and interpersonal moti-
vation. In conclusion, they present five recommendations for conducting motivation
research in schools concerning methods and outcomes, the identification of mediators
and moderators, unconscious processes, multicomponent interventions, and race and
ethnicity.
Next, Schunk and DiBenedetto discuss self-efficacy and its influence on learning,
motivation, and self-regulation. In addition, they provide a useful accounting of impor-
tant influences on self-efficacy (development, families, social and educational contexts),
and methodological strategies for assessing self-efficacy. They conclude their chapter
with recommendations for self-efficacy research that focus on cultural backgrounds,
contextual influences, out-of-school settings, and the dynamic nature of self-efficacy.
The third chapter by Wigfield, Tonks, and Klauda provides an overview of expectancy-
value theory. The authors focus on the expectancy-value model developed by Eccles,
Wigfield, and their colleagues, including three broad issues that arise from this work:
how expectancies and values develop and relate to performance and choice, how they are
influenced by different kinds of educational interventions and contexts, and how their
development is impacted by culture.
Senko provides a thoughtful account of achievement goal theory. He describes two
perspectives that characterize the literature on achievement goals, the “goal orientation”
model and the “goal standard” model, comparing the relative merits of each. The chap-
ter concludes with a discussion of a recently developed “goal complex” model and its
potential to integrate the two goal perspectives and generate new directions in research
on goal theory.
In their chapter on self-determination theory, Ryan and Deci discuss autonomous and
controlled forms of regulation in relation to school-related outcomes such as student
wellness, engagement, and performance. Three basic psychological needs—for compe-
tence, relatedness, and autonomy—are described as antecedents of effective performance
and psychological well-being in school settings. The authors also highlight school poli-
cies and environments that can support students’ and teachers’ basic psychological needs
and autonomous motivation for teaching and learning.
Next, Pekrun reviews theories and evidence on students’ academic emotions, includ-
ing enjoyment of learning, hope, pride, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom
at school. The chapter provides clarity with respect to conceptual issues, the origins and
development of emotions over the school years, and how emotions function to influence
students’ motivation, learning, and achievement. The chapter includes a discussion of
the control-value theory of achievement emotions and its implications for educational
practice and future research.
Skinner provides a comprehensive account of ways in which the constructs of engage-
ment and disaffection can provide insights into the role of motivation at school. These
constructs are described as engines of learning, mediators of motivational processes,
contributors to task choice, resources for coping, elicitors of teacher and peer reactions,
and input about identity. Implications are discussed in terms of how perspectives on
engagement and disaffection can inform teachers’ mental models of student learning
and thus guide improvement of their practices.
Kitsantas and Cleary review empirical research on self-regulated learning (SRL), based
on a three-phase cyclical model of adolescents’ learning and motivation. They dem-
onstrate how use of specific self-regulatory processes in a variety of areas of academic
functioning, such as mathematics, writing, and reading, positively impacts student per-
formance and motivation. They end their chapter by discussing instructional interven-
tions designed to enhance the use of self-regulatory processes, with recommendations on
how teachers can teach students to engage in self-regulated learning.
Finally, Alexander and Grossnickle examine the various definitions and manifestations
of interest and curiosity, highlighting their commonalities and distinctions. Interest and
curiosity are then positioned within the Model of Domain Learning, which describes a
developmental approach to academic functioning. The authors conclude with implica-
tions for empirical research and educational practice based on this work.
Section II
The chapters in Section II reflect perspectives on the role of social processes, socialization
agents, and contextual factors that can promote or hinder the development of students’
motivation at school. Authors describe empirical work and reflect on important theoret-
ical advancements in the areas of teacher (Wentzel), peer (Juvonen and Knifsend), and
instructional (Kaplan and Patrick) influences on student motivation. The sophisticated
and rich perspectives on motivation provided by these authors is testament to the grow-
ing recognition that social processes, interactions, and relationships can have a powerful
influence on student motivation and that integration of social developmental models
with more traditional approaches to motivation brings much strength to the discussion
of students’ motivation at school. Chapters on culture (King and McInerney), identity
(Master, Cheryan, and Meltzoff), and gender (Watt) in relation to student motivation
also are included in this section. These chapters remind us of the broader contextual
factors that can have a profound impact on student motivation but that are frequently
ignored in school-based studies of motivation. Finally, a chapter by Fives and Buehl on
teacher motivation considers the role of self-efficacy and goal orientations in promoting
or undermining students’ as well as teachers’ motivation to perform well at school.
The first chapter by Wentzel considers how and why teacher-student relationships
might be related to students’ motivation to achieve academic and social outcomes at
school. Toward this end, the various theoretical perspectives that guide work in the area
of teacher-student relationships are described, research on teacher-student relationships
that informs questions of causal influence is reviewed, and measurement and design
issues associated with this research are raised. In conclusion, directions for future work
in this area are offered.
Next, Juvonen and Knifsend review the literature on peer relationships and achieve-
ment motivation, highlighting ways in which the academic behaviors of friends and peer
support can facilitate achievement strivings and how being socially marginalized can
lead to a lack of motivation. They also describe the effects of peer group norms and
normative pressures on motivation in the classroom. The chapter ends with a discus-
sion of school social climate and how a lack of school belonging can have detrimental
motivational effects.
The third chapter in this section by Kaplan and Patrick reviews motivational per-
spectives that differ in their theoretical assumptions about the nature of motivation and
Overview • 5
how it is influenced by the environment. These authors highlight assumptions about

the source and malleability of motivation, identify the mechanisms of motivational
change associated with these assumptions, and discuss how the proposed mechanisms
can inform recommendations for the design of motivating learning environments. The
chapter ends with a discussion of emerging complexity models of motivation, including
the implications of this approach for both research and practice.
King and McInerney approach the topic of motivation at school from a cultural per-
spective. They first review the historical antecedents of research on culture and moti-
vation and then examine cultural differences in constructs and processes from major
motivational frameworks (e.g., attribution, expectancy-value, self-determination,
achievement goal, and personal investment theory). They end with recommendations
designed to help sensitize researchers to the role of culture in learning and motivation.
Master, Cheryan, and Meltzoff discuss how identity shapes students’ motivation and
achievement, specifically how identity (who students are and who they want to be) can
shape academic choices and goals. They also highlight how many students face the threat
of negative stereotypes about their social identity in school settings. The chapter con-
cludes with a discussion of how interventions can create identity-safe cues to improve
these students’ motivation.
Next, Watt describes differences in how girls and boys are motivated within particu-
lar academic domains, explores how these gender differences affect important academic
outcomes as well as career aspirations, and discusses how they are influenced by various
features of students’ learning environments. The chapter concludes with a discussion of
continuing theoretical and methodological challenges to research in this area.
Finally, Fives and Buehl explore the empirical and theoretical literature on teachers’
motivation, focusing on self-efficacy and achievement goal orientations. The authors
provide definitions of key constructs, review important theoretical and methodological
issues, and identify potential mechanisms of influence. The authors end with a discus-
sion of why teacher motivation is important to study and offer recommendations for
research and practice.
Section III
The chapters in the third section explore exciting new directions for research on motiva-
tion in schools. The majority of these chapters introduce established theories and meth-
odologies from other fields, such as developmental psychology (Maloney; Roeser; Rowe,
Ramani, and Pomerantz), social psychology (Miele and Scholer; Molden and Rosenz-
weig), and cognitive neuroscience (Reeve and Lee; Roeser), and relate them to the educa-
tional literature reviewed in the first two sections. Authors base their arguments, in part,
on research from these fields that has been conducted in academic settings; where such
research is missing, they are more speculative and point to promising opportunities for
new research.
In the first chapter of this section, Miele and Scholer posit a model of motivation
regulation that involves two central processes: students’ assessment of their own motiva-
tional states (i.e., monitoring) and their use of strategies to boost or change their motiva-
tion when they deem it to be insufficient (i.e., control). The authors then go on to review
research on motivation regulation strategies, with a focus on the specific components of
motivation targeted by each strategy. Though much of the research they review focuses
on how students regulate the amount or quantity of motivation they have to achieve
their goals, the authors also review emerging research rooted in social psychology that
examines how students monitor the quality of their motivation (e.g., the type of goal or
orientation they possess) in order to determine whether it is well-suited to the demands
of the academic tasks they are attempting to complete.
The second chapter, by Roeser, describes the emergence of mindfulness practices in
education, with specific attention to theory and research on school-based programs
offered directly to students. Roeser reviews various theoretical perspectives on what
mindfulness is and does, and describes five common, secular mindfulness practices used
in schools today. He also presents a conceptual framework for understanding the kinds
of skills and dispositions that these mindfulness practices might cultivate in students,
and posits a set of related hypotheses regarding the potential relevance of such skills and
dispositions for their motivation and learning.
Next, Maloney reviews the current literature on math anxiety, synthesizing findings
from psychology, neuroscience, and education to highlight what researchers believe to be
the causes, consequences, and most promising interventions for addressing math anxi-
ety. Based on this research, she presents a model that focuses on one particular mecha-
nism by which math anxiety may arise: students’ difficulties with numerical and spatial
processing, in conjunction with their increased sensitivity to negative social cues about
math.
The chapter by Reeve and Lee serves as a guide to relevant neuroscience research on
motivation for educators and researchers. The authors explore key methodological dif-
ferences in the motivational research being conducted by cognitive neuroscientists and
educational psychologists, arguing that, although certain differences can be viewed as
barriers to interdisciplinary efforts, they might ultimately serve as opportunities for joint
exploration. The authors also suggest how researchers of achievement motivation might
benefit from existing neuroscientific data, with a focus on 10 motivational constructs
that are featured in other chapters of the Handbook (e.g., goals, value, intrinsic motiva-
tion, self-regulation).
Hofer and Fries explore the motivational conflicts students experience inside and out-
side of the classroom between their academic and nonacademic (e.g., social) goals. The
authors first present their theory of motivational action conflicts, concerning ways in
which goals can interfere with each other, and then review research demonstrating that
motivational interference can impair achievement as well as students’ well-being. Finally,
they suggest ways that students in societies with multiple (and sometimes conflicting)
values can deal effectively with goal conflicts in order to experience a balanced life.
In the next chapter, Rowe, Ramani, and Pomerantz examine relations between
parental involvement and children’s motivation and achievement. The novelty of their
approach stems from the ways in which they integrate research from two distinct areas:
the research on general parental involvement as a predictor of children’s achievement
via motivation, and more domain-specific work on parents’ engagement in activities
with their children and the effects of this engagement on children’s developing skills in
literacy and math. The authors argue that by fostering conversations between these two
research areas, more can be learned about the specific relations between parenting prac-
tices and involvement, children’s motivation, and academic achievement.
The last chapter explores a motivational distinction from social psychology that has
only recently been applied to educational contexts: students’ concerns with growth and
advancement (promotion) versus with safety and security (prevention). Molden and
Rosenzweig describe how concerns with promotion or prevention are experienced and
activated, how they differ from other commonly studied achievement motivations (e.g.,
Overview • 7
approach/avoidance, mastery/performance, intrinsic/extrinsic), and how they are dif-

ferentially related to information processing strategies and goal-directed behavior. In
closing, they consider the implications of these differences for student motivation and
learning, with particular attention to the costs and benefits of focusing on promotion
versus prevention.
LOOKING FORWARD
In closing, we would like to thank the authors who contributed to this volume for their
scholarly, thought-provoking, and forward-looking chapters on motivation at school.
We are encouraged by the ongoing evolution of constructs that defined earlier work in
the field, including: new ways of defining and thinking about multiple school-related
goals and new perspectives on aspects of self-regulation such as engagement and disaf-
fection, metamotivation, and promotion versus prevention concerns. We are also pleased
that the chapters in this volume provide new insights into social motivational processes
as they relate to academic motivation at school, and how interpersonal relationships
and learning contexts combine to influence self-beliefs that motivate learning and per-
formance. In addition, we applaud advances in how the field understands the motiva-
tion of individuals from different cultural, racial, and ethnic groups. Finally, we believe
the application of theoretical work to educational practice, including consideration of
domain- and subject-specific educational problems, is an exciting and important new
direction for the field.
We also believe that this compilation of work on students’ motivation at school
remains important and timely for several reasons. First, developments in the areas of
educational policy and testing continue to place student motivation at the center of
national debate and discussion (see Ryan and Deci, this volume). The persistent achieve-
ment gap between children from some minority groups and their Caucasian and Asian
American peers has led scholars to suggest that performance deficits might be explained,
in part, by motivational rather than cognitive differences (e.g., Graham and Taylor, this
volume). In a related vein, scholars have continued to identify the clear and substantial
benefits of social motivational processes, such as a sense of social relatedness and belong-
ing, for students’ engagement in academic pursuits (Juvonen and Knifsend, this volume;
Wentzel, this volume). Investigating ways in which social and academic motivational
processes interact and complement each other to influence academic performance has
become central to understanding the comparatively low levels of achievement of many
children, especially those who are members of traditionally low-performing groups.
Of course, there is much yet to be done. We look forward to the development of more
integrated models that retain the complexity of processes and constructs found in this
volume but that also achieve a simplicity that is useful to practitioners and policymak-
ers interested in educational reform. In this regard, integration of perspectives on social
motivation and contextual affordances with models that focus solely on self-processes
and academic outcomes is a clear challenge. Adoption of approaches from other domains,
including neuroscience, social psychology, and developmental psychology, is critical for
these advances to take place. Such adoption is also essential if we are to provide a more
complete picture of how and why motivation changes over time and how motivational
processes lead to change in students’ social and academic accomplishments.
Finally, we also look forward to advances in measurement and research design that can
move the field forward. Increased focus on validating constructs, documenting process
and change, and identifying processes nested within individuals as well as those that
nest individuals within broader contexts is clearly needed. Measurement strategies could
also be expanded to include physiological and neurological assessments, observations,
ratings by teachers or other informants, and new online measures that move away from
the static views that traditional self-report measures provide. More attention to assessing
structural aspects of schools and classrooms that influence students’ motivation also is
warranted.
We hope that this second edition of the Handbook will stimulate and provide guid-
ance to current and future scholars and educational researchers in their efforts to under-
stand more fully students’ motivation at school.
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Handbook of Motivation at School

The second edition of the Handbook of Motivation at School presents an integrated

Kathryn R. Wentzel is Professor of Human Development in the Department of Human

David B. Miele is Buehler Sesquicentennial Assistant Professor in the Counseling, Devel-

International Handbook of Research on Conceptual Change, Second Edition

The International Guide to Student Achievement

The International Handbook of Collaborative Learning

Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance

Handbook of Research on Learning and Instruction

Handbook of Motivation at School

International Handbook of Research on Conceptual Change

Handbook of Moral and Character Education

Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools, Second Edition

Handbook of Emotions in Education

Handbook of Moral and Character Education

International Handbook of Research on Teachers’ Beliefs

Section I MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 2 Attribution Theory and Motivation in School 11

Chapter 3 Self-Efficacy Theory in Education 34

Chapter 4 Expectancy-Value Theory 55

Chapter 5 Achievement Goal Theory: A Story of Early Promises,

Chapter 6 Facilitating and Hindering Motivation, Learning,

Chapter 7 Academic Emotions 120

Chapter 8 Engagement and Disaffection as Central to Processes of

Chapter 9 The Development of Self-Regulated Learning during Secondary

Chapter 10 Positioning Interest and Curiosity within a Model of Academic

Section II CONTEXTUAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES

Chapter 11 Teacher-Student Relationships 211

Chapter 12 School-Based Peer Relationships and Achievement Motivation 231

Chapter 13 Learning Environments and Motivation 251

Chapter 15 Motivation and Identity 300

Chapter 16 Gender and Motivation 320

Chapter 17 Teacher Motivation: Self-Efficacy and Goal Orientation 340

Section III NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE FIELD 361

Chapter 18 Self-Regulation of Motivation 363

Chapter 19 Mindfulness in Students’ Motivation and Learning in School 385

Chapter 20 Math Anxiety: Causes, Consequences, and Remediation 408

Chapter 21 Neuroscientific Contributions to Motivation in Education 424

Chapter 22 A Multiple Goals Perspective on Academic Motivation 440

Chapter 23 Parental Involvement and Children’s Motivation

Chapter 24 The Origins and Educational Implications of

Author Index 505

Patricia A. Alexander, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Method-

Casey Knifsend, Department of Psychology, California State University, Sacramento

and thought provoking in their consideration of nontraditional approaches to the study

OVERVIEW OF THE VOLUME

how it is influenced by the environment. These authors highlight assumptions about

approach/avoidance, mastery/performance, intrinsic/extrinsic), and how they are dif-

Attribution Theory and Motivation in School

Self-Efficacy Theory in Education

Achievement Goal Theory

Facilitating and Hindering Motivation, Learning, and Well-Being in Schools

Engagement and Disaffection as Central to Processes of Motivational Resilience

The Development of Self-Regulated Learning During Secondary School Years

School-Based Peer Relationships and Achievement Motivation

Learning Environments and Motivation

Culture and Motivation

Motivation and Identity

Gender and Motivation

A Multiple Goals Perspective on Academic Motivation

Parental Involvement and Children's Motivation and Achievement

The Origins and Educational Implications of Promotion-Focused and Prevention-

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Chapter 2 Attribution Theory and Motivation in School 11

Chapter 3 Self-Efficacy Theory in Education 34

Chapter 4 Expectancy-Value Theory 55

Chapter 7 Academic Emotions 120

Chapter 11 Teacher-Student Relationships 211

Chapter 12 School-Based Peer Relationships and Achievement Motivation 231

Chapter 13 Learning Environments and Motivation 251

Chapter 15 Motivation and Identity 300

Chapter 16 Gender and Motivation 320

Chapter 17 Teacher Motivation: Self-Efficacy and Goal Orientation 340

Section III NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE FIELD 361

Chapter 18 Self-Regulation of Motivation 363

Chapter 19 Mindfulness in Students’ Motivation and Learning in School 385

Chapter 20 Math Anxiety: Causes, Consequences, and Remediation 408

Chapter 21 Neuroscientific Contributions to Motivation in Education 424

Chapter 22 A Multiple Goals Perspective on Academic Motivation 440

Author Index 505