aORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY:

-Sociology as a discipline emerged in European societies, especially in the countries of

Western Europe.

- In traditional Western European societies sociology emerged as a discipline during the

years 1600-1800’s.

Three major events that took place in Europe were:

1. Enlightenment period - 1600-1700

2. French Revolution - 1789

3. Industrial Revolution - 1800’s

ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD: (1600-1700)

-The period of enlightenment literally means to reveal or to bring about some

clarification.
-During the enlightenment period the European society was classified as a Feudal
System, meaning the church and the Aristocrats were at the top of the social order.
-This period saw the emergence of science and rationality to expel the notion that the
church was in charge of society.
-The Feudal system contained Aristocrats who gained their position based on
Bloodline and family name.
-The enlightenment period explained that the Feudal system exploited the poorer
people and that scientific knowledge would prove that the church did not have the
power that it claimed to have. (EXAM TIP)
The Shortest Overview of the ENLIGHTENMENT - in less than 2 minutes - YouTube
The Enlightenment: Crash Course European History #18 - YouTube
FRENCH REVOLUTION: (1789)
-The French revolution occurred in 1789 when the peasant class revolted against the
Aristocrats.
-The Aristocrats enjoyed luxuries while the peasants who had endured severe winters
had little or no food to eat.
-The Bourgeoisie had economic power but lacked political power and therefore they
rallied the support of the peasants who revolted against the Aristocrats.
-After 1789 with the execution of the king and queen of France the society had two
classes.

The French Revolution: Crash Course World History #29 - YouTube

 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: (MID 1700’S-1800’S)

-The Industrial revolution was centered around the ‘steam engine’.

-The creation of the steam engine also led to the creation of new technology such as
electricity.
-Electricity now powered modern forms of equipment which produced greater output
and thus workers were now needed to assist in production.
-As villages grew with technology, people from all over the region would come to these
areas in search of jobs hence urban cities grew.
- Unfortunately the city did not grow as fast as the population and as a result there
were high levels of CRIME, POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT.
Coal, Steam, and The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course World History #32 - YouTube

EXAM TIP: The enlightenment period and the French Revolution focused on the old
Western European societies of France, England and Germany. However the
Industrial Revolution also affected North America, hence North American
sociologists started to write about the society.

KEY CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY:

1. NORMS: rules or expectations that are socially enforced
2. VALUES: things that people consider important to them
3. MORES OR MORAL: knowing right and wrong in human behavior
4. LAWS: a rule or set of rules that can be enforced
5. SANCTIONS: any reaction from others to the behaviour of an individual or group. formal
sanctions,informal sanctions, negative sanctions and positive sanctions.
6. ROLE: the behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or
status.
7. STATUS: the position a person occupies in a particular setting.
1. Norms: these are defined as how people are supposed to behave under particular
circumstances in a particular society. Norms are generally accepted behavior of the
wider society.
2. Values: these are ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper,
good or bad.
3. Mores/Moral: these are stronger norms where people attach a moral signature or
treat certain situations more seriously.
4. Laws: these are formally put in place by a political authority and are reinforced by the
power of the state.
5. Sanctions: these are rewards/punishments for conformity or nonconformity of
rules/laws.
Positive sanctions: Rewards
Negative sanctions: Punishments
Formal sanctions: They appear in the formal domain
Informal sanctions: They appear within closed groups
6. Role: these are expected patterns of behavior associated with a particular social
status.
7. Status: this refers to the fact that certain positions or individuals are rewarded social
honor and status is closely linked to power.

(271) Symbols, Values & Norms: Crash Course Sociology #10 - YouTube
EARLY SOCIOLOGISTS (CLASSICAL THINKERS)

AUGUSTE COMTE (1789-1857):

● Comte created or coined the term sociology and tried to show how this new

discipline would improve society as a system which was made up of many parts.

● In his study Comte tried to explain the relationship between or among different

parts of society and these parts included the Family, Education and Religion

among others. (SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS)

● Family

● Education

● Religion

● Media

EXAM TIP: Comte’s writing was heavily influenced by the Industrial Revolution.

● Comte believed in science and assumed that the same methods applied to natural

sciences could also be used and applied to society.

EXAM TIP: Come believes in POSITIVISM ie: Scientific approaches can be used to

understand human behavior.

Comte believed that society evolved through three (3) stages:

1. Theological Stage the world and the place of humans within it were explained in terms of

gods, spirits, and magic;

2. Meta- physical Stage explanations were based on abstract notions such as

essences and final causes

3. Positivistic Stage. stage based on scientific knowledge

 HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903):

● Spencer had a talent for synthesizing information ie: his goal was to recognise and

organise human knowledge into systems and hence he produced the first

sociology book “PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY”

● Spencer declared that the field of sociology should include the study of Family,

Politics, Religion and social stratification.

● Spencer believed that society was similar to living organisms.

EXAM TIP: Just as the organs of the body make specialised contributions, the

various segments of society are interconnected and interdependent and thus they

will contribute to the whole system. Each part of society serves a specialised

function necessary to ensure that society serves its members and also ensure that

society survives.

● Spencer followed the works of CHARLES DARWIN who was a scientist. Charles

Darwin studied organisms and believed in the concept called “ Survival of the

Fittest”.

● In Darwin's theory there are certain species of animals who survived by killing the

weaker ones and Spencer applied this knowledge to society.

● Spencer believed that people who do not successfully survive socially in a modern

society means that they have poorly adapted to their environment and thus are

seen as inferior.

● To Spencer poor people are to be blamed for their state and assistance should be

temporary.

EMILE DURKHEIM: (1858-1917)

● Durkheim was a French Sociologist and he believed that individuals were the

products of their social background.

● Durkheim believed that scientific methods can be used to explain sociology

EXAM TIP: Durkheim was considered a positivist.

● Durkheim was also of the opinion that religion and other institutions such as family

and Education reinforced a sense of belonging.

● In 1895 Durkheim published the book “Rules of Sociological Methods”

● In his research Durkheim studies suicide and he studies the factors which affected

people’s mind to commit suicide.

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IZfGGF-YYzY&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YK

WkZAnGA&index=6

EXAM TIP: Society is an Integrated whole with each part contributing to the overall

stability of the system.

KARL MARX: (1818- 1883)

● Karl Marx is often seen as a revolutionary proponent for political and social

change.

● Marx was a German economist who also wrote about sociology and history.

● Marx believed in the concept of “ECONOMIC DETERMINISM” ie: the relationship

among different groups in society.

EXAM TIP: Marx contends that society is divided between:

1. The Bourgeoisie: these were the people who owned the means of

production.

2. The Proletariats: these make up the masses of workers who do not own

any means of production but instead sold their labor for wages.
 ● Marx’s writing was heavily influenced by the Industrial revolution where

employment was low and an overwhelming majority of people were poor. Most of

these poor people were unemployed because they were replaced by machines.

EXAM TIP: the rural poor moved to the city in search for jobs in factories and

workshops, and here the Bourgeoisie exploited the Proletariats.

● Marx tries to understand how social forces produced inequalities in society and he

looked for means to bring about change in order to improve human conditions.

● Marx believed that the entire history of society would be seen a history of CLASS

CONFLICT: ie. conflict between the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariats.

● (271) Karl Marx & Conflict Theory: Crash Course Sociology #6 - YouTube

MAX WEBER: German (1864-1920)

● Weber was a german sociologist.

● One of his major studies was concerned with knowing the patterns of behavior of

individuals.

● (271) Max Weber & Modernity: Crash Course Sociology #9 - YouTube

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND PERSPECTIVES:

Learning outcomes:

Sociological theories/perspectives tend to fall into 2 major categories

1. Macro Perspectives

2. Micro Perspectives
 What is a Theory?

A set of ideas that claim to explain how a society works.

● Sociological theories try to explain the relationship between or among individuals.

● Theories are important since they give meaning to anything being studied.

● Theories help to organise and interpret meanings and facts about society.

● The MACRO PERSPECTIVE explains how society is more important to individuals and

the focus here is on society as a whole.

● The MICRO PERSPECTIVE also focuses on the larger society and how it influences the

individuals.

● The MICRO PERSPECTIVE tends to explain interactions between individuals and

therefore the theories place emphasis on the individuals.

GENERAL POINT: sociological theories fall into the following perspectives.

1. FUNCTIONALISM THEORIES
2. CONFLICT THEORIES
3. INTERACTIONIST THEORIES

MACRO THEORIES MICRO THEORIES

FUNCTIONALISM AND CONFLICT INTERACTIONISM

FUNCTIONALISM: is also called structural functionalism or consensus theories;

consensus means in a state of agreement.

● Functionalism is deeply rooted in the writings of Comte, Spencer and Durkheim

EXAM TIP: Functionalism is a structural theory that stresses the nature of society as

being in a state of cohesion or in a state of consensus.

Society is a system of interrelated institutions such as Family schools, media,

religion and education.

● This theory holds that the rules and institutions exist in order to help society

maintain order or cohesion or remain in a state of consensus.

● Consensus means agreement or harmony and consensus theories are based on

ideas that different parts of society work together in order to remain or maintain

social order.

● Society is a system with interrelated and interdependent parts that function or

operate in harmony.

● The Functionalist theory indicates that the major parts of society fit together

smoothly and work to maintain the social system. (The Human Analogy)

CONFLICT THEORIES: argues that there are differences of interest between

groups in society. Ie: what is good for one group is bad for another group.

● The differences of interest create potential conflicts between groups.

● Conflict theorists believe there is a dominant group who holds power, wealth and

prestige while there is a subordinate group who works for the dominant group.
INTERACTIONIST THEORY: looks at social behavior in smaller groups.

● Interactionists deal with human behavior and the reactions to human behavior.

● The individual makes sense of the social world in which they participate in.

FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES
 TALCOTT PARSONS: AMERICAN (1902-1979)

● Parsons believed society is a system of interrelated parts, each vital to the

survival of society itself.

● Parsons 1964 sees that society must have value consensus ie: a general

state of agreement on what is desirable, valuable and what is not.

● In society people cooperate and this leads to social integration.

FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES: PARSONS

In order for society to remain in a state of cohesion there must be

four prerequisites.

1. ADAPTATION

2. INTEGRATION

3. GOAL ATTAINMENT

4. PATTERN MAINTENANCE /LATENCY

ADAPTATION: a system must adapt to the environment through economic

activity.

Societies that cannot feed themselves are found to collapse and thus the

economy must be able to cope with this problem.

INTEGRATION: various parts must fulfill specific functions and each part must

work together for a whole.

GOAL ATTAINMENT: this is how a system defines and achieves goals.

There is a need to motivate members of a society to strive for similar goals.

PATTERN MAINTENANCE OR LATENCY: members of a society must play the

necessary roles and conform to rules to achieve order.

Specific Institutions serve the four functional prerequisites.

 1. ECONOMY: performs the adaptive function

2. POLITICAL SYSTEM: performs goal attainments

3. THE COURT/POLICE AND LAWS: performs the integrated function

4. THE CULTURAL SYSTEM: FERM performs pattern maintenance.

EMILE DURKHEIM: human societies are organised around some level of social

solidarity (togetherness)

There were two types of Solidarity:

1. Mechanical Solidarity (Traditional Societies)

2. Organic Solidarity (Modern Societies)

MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY

-society is traditional and homogeneous -society is modern or contemporary

-there must be a collective conscience ie: -high level of division of labor will
a state of agreement in society change how people relate to each
other

-there is a high level of integration -focus is on the wants of the individual

as opposed to the overall benefit of
 society.

-social norms are embodied in religion

-the aim of the group or society is to

maintain cohesion.

-low level of division of labor

ANOMIE: if there is too much deviance chaos will evolve

To Durkheim if society had no collective conscience or there are weak norms

and values there may be chaos.

SOCIAL FACTS: refer to the social structure, norms, culture and values of

society. (simply putting everything into numbers)

in order to apply scientific methods to understand human behavior, everything

should be quantified and considered to be a social fact.

ROBERT K MERTON

An american sociologist (1910-2003)

His contributions have sparked research on deviant behavior, or studies of criminality

Dysfunctionalism : Any action or behavior that has negative consequences for a group or

society; an effect of structures that fosters social instability.

 Functionalism: The view that society is a system of many functioning structures that work

together to create a stable society.

Manifest:the intended functions of social policies, processes, or actions that are consciously

and deliberately designed to be beneficial in their effect on society

Latent: functions which are unintended or unrecognized consequences of any social pattern

Exam Tip: Merton suggested that some institutions may be both functional and dysfunctional

at the same time. That is the institution may promote harmony and disharmony at the same

time.

Merton was a functionalist but he also agreed that society did not always run smoothly.

Merton in his theory believed that society consisted of different interrelated parts but some parts did not

work towards the benefit of the entire society.

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE:
● Focuses on the antagonistic relationship between groups

● The conflict perspective contains the following theories:

1. MARXISM

2. NEO-MARXISM

3. FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES

● For Karl Marx his theory was based on ‘Dialectical Materialism’ ie: throughout

history classes clashed or competed for scarce resources.

● Society was heavily influenced by the economy and he called this “ECONOMIC

DETERMINISM”

● The ruling class controls the institutions of society and thus uses these institutions

to exploit and oppress the masses (Bourgeoisie and Proletariats)

● Marx was an economist and saw that the economy was the base of the society.
MARX SUPER AND SUB STRUCTURE:

SUPER STRUCTURE: this part of society is made up of social institutions. (FERM)

● Through the institutions the ruling class ideologies are perpetuated or

passed down to the Proletariats.

● The superstructure passes the norms and values of the Bourgeoisie to

the Proletariats.

SUBSTRUCTURE: the substructure is considered as the base of the society and it

comprise of:

1. The means or forces of production

2. The relations of production

The means of production include factories, land, capital, labor, machinery,

scientific knowledge all of which are used in producing material goods.

The relations of production refer to the social relationships people enter in

order to produce goods.

● FALSE & CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

In the capitalists society certain groups of proletariats are exploited but

yet they do not revolt. In fact, Marx believed that they are unaware that

they are being exploited. Marx calls this FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS.

Exam Tip: False consciousness is a state of mind where the proletariats

are unaware that they are being exploited by the bourgeoisie.

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

This is where one is truly aware of his economic situation through class

consciousness workers are unified and organised as they become aware

of their exploitation. As a result, they revolt against the ruling class in a

major revolution.

Exam Tip: Socialism and communism are ideal societies, i.e these

societies are called classless societies or egalitarian societies, i.e

everyone is equal. Marx calls the ideal society a utopia

 THE MARXIST MODEL OF PRODUCTION

● Throughout history society has evolved from being simple to being complex.

● Marx proposes that as society underwent changes different modes of production

presented itself.

● EXAM TIP: as society evolved, production changed which gave rise to particular

groups.

Marx contends in his model that society went through 5 time periods or MODES OF

PRODUCTION which he called “EPOCHS”

The five epochs are as follows:

1. Primitive Communism Epoch

2. Ancient Epoch

3. Feudal Epoch

4. Capitalist Epoch

5. Modern Communism Epoch

PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM EPOCH: was a time period when there were no classes

ANCIENT EPOCH: the ancient epoch had an ancient slavery which was divided into

masters and slaves. (the story of Moses)

FEUDAL EPOCH: the feudal epoch was divided between the Aristocracy and Peasantry.

(FRENCH REV)

CAPITALIST EPOCH: divided between the Bourgeoisie and Proletariats.

MODERN COMMUNISM EPOCH: has no classes.

 APPLICATION OF THE MARXIST MODEL TO THE CAPITALIST SOCIETY.

When the Marxist perspective is applied to capitalism the following emerges:

● The Bourgeoisie exploits and employs the proletariats

● The Proletariats who have no capital of their own sell their labor to the Bourgeoisie

for a wage or salary.

● Bankruptcy and unemployment are common in this society.

● As time progresses there is a constant clash between the Bourgeoisie and

Proletariats

● Over time there is an increasing separation between the rich and poor.

EXAM TIP: False consciousness turns to class consciousness and a violent revolution

occurs which destabilizes the society. As a result modern communism is achieved.

● Critics have argued that as capitalism has developed class consciousness was

reduced rather than being increased.

● Marxism seems to exacerbate the importance of economic factors that affect

society and he fails to ignore the influence of ideas and cultures of the Individuals.

(Interactionist perspective)

● Marxism emphasises class difference and pays too little attention to gender and

ethnic inequalities of people.

 FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE

These theories are associated with the conflict perspective but tend to focus on

women’s issues in society.

The feminist perspective have been catergorised into five sectors

1. Liberal Feminism

2. Marxist Feminism

3. Radical Feminism

4. Dual System

5. Black Feminism

LIBERAL FEMINISM:
EXAM TIP: Liberal Feminism argued that primary socialisation in the home outlines what

males and females are supposed to do. Males tend to do more yard work while

women may do more household chores. E.g. cooking/cleaning

Secondary socialisation influences gender roles based on education or the images of

women in the media.

RADICAL FEMINISM:

● This category starts from the assumption that the real cause of the oppression

of women are men.

● Patriarchy exists because men unknowingly or deliberately benefit from an

unequal system in society.

● Radical feminist have examined a whole range of female relations and they look

at how women are used by men for sexual relations.

● Radical feminism has a number of uses:

1. Absentesium from sex

2. Advocate for lesbian rights

3. Marxist Feminism

● This approach looks at the oppression of women based on capitalist society.

● Marx indicates that women are seen as important reproductive agents in

capitalism who physically produce or ‘rare’ the next generation of laborers who

are socialized into being submissive.

DUAL SYSTEM FEMINISM:

 ● This theory combines elements from both radical and Marxist feminism

● Two systems of exploitation and oppression exist.

● Firstly capitalism ensures that the exploitation of all workers, especially women

exist.

● The second is that women are oppressed by men within the capitalist structure.

● Women have to balance a job then serve the bourgeoisie and at the same time

be wife and mother.

● The family and domestic duties prevent women from taking high positions such

as senior authorities and thus they remain in inferior positions.

BLACK FEMINISM:

● This is primarily concerned with the position of black or asian women in society.

● There are very different problems facing black women as opposed to white women.

● Black women are often faced with the issue of racism.

 INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

● Interactionist deals with the action that occur within persons

● It studies society through interactions within individuals and small groups.

● Humans are called social animals

EXAM TIP: Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes the importance of symbols in the

regular interactions. Through symbols and meanings humans tend to

communicate and make sense of their social world around them.

THE LOOKING GLASS THEORY: CHARLES COOLEY (1864-1929)

● Cooley identified the influence of the environment on human behavior.

● According to Cooley people learnt to act as society wants them to act.

● Individuals behavior modifies as the situation dictates.

● We imagine how we appear to be to those around us and we interpret others'

reactions.
 DRAMA TURGY: ERVING GOOFMAN (1922-1982)

● Goofman in his book “The presentation of self in everyday life” claims that people’s

social life is a ‘STAGE’

● Individuals in an attempt to fit in may adapt roles that may fit the front stage and

the backstage.

● Drama Turgy views society as a stage where human actors give performances to

an audience.

PHENOMENOLOGY: ALFRED SCHUTTZ

Phenomenology is a school of philosophy which attempts to explain social action by

studying the phenomenon or human experience at first hand.

EXAM TIP: Phenomenological studies require the researcher actually experience the

phenomena being investigated and it is the only way that the true

meaning will be discovered.

HAROLD GARFINKEL: ETHNOMETHODOLOGY:

● American sociologist Harold Garfinkel in the 1960's claimed that people make sense of

the social world around them by understanding common sense practical reasoning.

● Garfinkel explained that people make sense of their world by observing a set of

unwritten rules that tend to guide their behavior.

 MAX WEBER SOCIAL ACTION THEORY:

1. PHENOMENOLOGY: ALFRED SCHUTTZ The conscious study of an individual's lived

experience of the world.

2. ETHNOMETHODOLOGY: HAROLD GARFINKEL The study of how social order is produced in

and through processes of social interaction.

3. MAX WEBER: SOCIAL ACTION THEORY The observation of the actions and reactions of

individuals (or 'agents').

4. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM: GEORGE HERBERT MEAD The act of viewing society as

full of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and

communicate with one another.