Utilitarianism

By: Ashley Chua, Justine Lagera

and John Paul Lugtu
 Utilitarianism is a theory of morality that advocates
actions that foster happiness or pleasure and oppose
actions that cause unhappiness or harm. When
directed toward making social, economic, or
political decisions, a utilitarian philosophy would aim
for the betterment of society as a whole.
 4 major points of Utilitarianism

1. Consequentialism - the doctrine that

actions should be judged right or
wrong based on their consequences.
 Example:

Most people would agree that lying is wrong.

But if telling a lie would help save a person's
life, consequentialism says it's the right thing to
do.
4 major points of Utilitarianism

2. Welfarism - is the view that only the

welfare (also called well-being) of
individuals determines the value of an
outcome.

 Example:

Money can buy many useful things and

is thus good for a person
instrumentally, but it is not a
component of their well-being.
4 major points of Utilitarianism

3. Impartiality - the principle that decisions ought to

be based on objective criteria, rather than based on
bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person
over another for improper reasons.

 4 major points of Utilitarianism

4. Aggregationism - is the view that the value of the

world is the sum of the values of its parts, where these
parts are local phenomena such as experiences, lives,
or societies.

 1. Pleasure or Happiness Is
the Only Thing That Truly
Moral and Has Intrinsic Value.
Acceptable
2. Actions Are Right Insofar as
Acts They Promote Happiness,
Wrong Insofar as They
Produce Unhappiness.
 4. If desires
3. If the
conflict, then
consequence of an the things most
action is good, strongly
then it's good preferred are
regardless of the identified as
way it's done. good.
 Utilitarianism puts forward
that it is a virtue to
improve one's life better
Good beliefs in by increasing the good
things in the world and
Utilitarianism minimizing the bad things.
This means striving for

pleasure and happiness
while avoiding discomfort
or unhappiness.
Immoral and
Unacceptable
acts

 1. An action is wrong if it tends to

produce unhappiness or pain.

Immoral
2. An action is wrong if it
produces a negative contribution
to human beings.
Thank You!
 Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas' Ethics
ALSO CALLED THE In Ethics, Aquinas depends so
ANGELIC DOCTOR heavily on Aristotle. Like the
and the Prince of Greek philosopher, Aquinas
Scholastics, Thomas believes that all actions are
Aquinas (1225- directed towards ends and
1274) is an Italian
that happiness is the final
philosopher and
end. Aquinas also thinks that
theologian who
happiness is not equated with
ranks among the most important pleasure, material
thinkers of the medieval time possessions, honor, or any
period. sensual good, but consists in
activities in accordance with
virtue.
Aquinas' Laws Divine Law
Serves to complement the
Eternal Law
other types of law.
Rational plan of God by which
all creation is ordered Natural inclinations
Natural Law • To survive
Refers to positive laws, more • To reproduce and educate
exact and forceful provisions.
offspring
Human Law
• To love
The aspect of the Eternal law
which is accessible to human
reason
➢ A habit is a "hard to
eradicate" quality
2 types of Habits
1. Acquired - The autonomous
will of the person plays a huge
role in acquired habits.
2. Infused- Directly instilled by
God in our faculties.
2 Types of Infused Virtues
1. Moral - Activities that are
less virtuous and inferior to the
final end.
To this kind belongs Prudence,
Fortitude, Temperance and
Justice
2. Theological- Are concerned
directly with God.
The virtues of Faith, Hope and
Love serve to attune us to our
final end.
Aspect of Human Action Moral
• Species • 10 commandments

• Accident
• End
Examples
Immoral
• Same sex union
• murder
• adultery
• rape
Socrates
Ethics
Virtue
Ethics
Normative Ethics

or
Virtue Ethics

- Deals with good habits and

avoiding bad characters, traits,
and vices

Socrates
Moral and Immoral
Behaviors
Socrates Moral
Behaviors
Courage Temperance

Compassion

Kindness Humility
"He is a man of courage

who does not run away,

but remains at his post

and fights against the

enemy."
Socrates
Socrates Moral
Behaviors
Courage Temperance

Compassion

Kindness Humility
 "The highest realms of

thought are impossible

to reach without first

attaining an

understanding of

compassion."
Socrates
Socrates Moral
Behaviors
Courage Temperance

Compassion

Kindness Humility
 "There is no difference

between knowledge and

temperance; for he who

knows what is good and

embraces it, who knows

what is bad and avoids

it, is learned and

temperate."
Socrates
Socrates Moral
Behaviors
Courage Temperance

Compassion

Kindness Humility
"Be kind, for everyone

you meet is fighting a

hard battle."

Socrates
Socrates Moral
Behaviors
Courage Temperance

Compassion

Kindness Humility
 "Admitting one's

ignorance is the first

step in acquiring

knowledge."

Socrates
Socrates

Cowardice Ignorance

Injustice

Vanity Discontentment

Immoral
Behaviors
 "Some have courage in

pleasures and some in

pains: some in desires,

and some in fears, and

some are cowards under

the same conditions."

Socrates
Socrates

Cowardice Ignorance

Injustice

Vanity Discontentment

Immoral
Behaviors
 "It is better to suffer an

injustice than to commit

one"

Socrates
Socrates

Cowardice Ignorance

Injustice

Vanity Discontentment

Immoral
Behaviors
"Awareness of ignorance

is the beginning of

wisdom."

Socrates
Socrates

Cowardice Ignorance

Injustice

Vanity Discontentment

Immoral
Behaviors
"Through your rags i see

your vanity"

Socrates
Socrates

Cowardice Ignorance

Injustice

Vanity Discontentment

Immoral
Behaviors
 "He who is not

contented with what he

has, would not be

contented with what he

would like to have."

Socrates
 Thank You
for Listening!
Have a
great day
ahead!
Members
Briones, Lovely Jardiel, Joseph
Cayme, Sheena Layug, Sonny
Delos Santos, Mark Matnog, Jeyvie
Dela Cruz, Angelika Nuqui, Bryan
Garcia, Jan Yutuc, Paloma

 The Moral/ Immoral,

Acceptable/ Unacceptable
Practices and Behaviors of
Kantian Ethics, Self
Realization Ethics and of
Buddhism Ethical Teachings

Presented by Group 2 (BSCE 1D)

What is Kantian
Ethics?
by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher.

Kantian ethics are a set of universal moral

principles that apply to all human beings,
regardless of context or situation.
2 Questions before one
perfoms as act:
1. Can I rationally will that everyone act as I
propose to act?
2. Does my action respect the goals of human
being rather than merely using them for my own
purposes?
The rightness or
wrongness of the actions
do not depend on their
consequences but on
whether they fulfill our
duty.
Moral
Practi-
ces of
Kantian
Ethics Always abide
by the law
Valuing the life
of a person.
One is human
and, therefore,

one deserves
respect.

Moral
Practi-
ces of
Kantian
Ethics Never treat
another human
Keeping
promises.
Telling the truth
in all
being as a
circumstances.
means to some

greater end.
Immoral
Practi-
ces of
Kantian
Ethics Coercing a
person to commit
Harassing a
person.
Deceiving a
person to get
murder.
what you want.

Immoral
Practi-
ces of
Kantian
Ethics Commiting
suicide.
Stealing

Lying.

Self-Realization
Aristotle believes that the ultimate
human goal is SELF-REALIZATION

Ethics, for Aristotle, is the inquiry into

the human good = “Eudaimonia” or
happiness.
Self-Realization
Ethics

A life of excellence is based on

the actualization of human
potentialities.
 Be the
person you Becoming
want to be a well-
Moral not the rounded
person person.
Practices others wish

you to be.
of Self-
Realization
Ethics Have Take
respon-
respect for
yourself sibility for
and others. your

actions.
 Staying Being an
your inactive
Immoral comfort person.
Practices zone.

of Self-
Realization When you
Ethics Bullying shut
others in people
order to down
make you when they
look strong. question

you.
Stages of Self-Realization

1. Self-inquiry 6. Self-love
2. Self-discovery 7. Self-respect
3. Self-awareness 8. Self-transformation
4. Self-acceptance 9. Self-mastery
5. Self-empowerment 10. Self-realization
 How To Attain Self
Realization?
Find time for you Be focused & do
self-work
Know yourself
Meditate regularly
Free your ties
Get to explore
Find peace within your spiritual
self
Self-Realization
Ethics

·We should strive to make our

potentialities real.
.
Chapter 4: FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL
DISPOSITIONS

Module 8: Norms of Morality and Basic Theories as Frameworks in Ethics

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of the norms of

and the basic theories as frameworks in Ethics. It is hoped that the discussion,
description and explanation in this module will further help in your journey to the
understanding of ethics, especially the norms of morality and the basic theories as
frameworks in Ethics which are important in helping you to become responsible moral
agent. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you
understand the norms of morality and basic theories as frameworks in Ethics.

Test Yourself (place your answer on page 102)

Read the following statement and write A if agree and D and if you disagree:
________ 1. Man in his right reason is capable of knowing whether his action is
right or wrong.
________2. The age of the person is important in determining the accountability
of the person who did the act.
________3. How the crime was committed has something with the gravity of the
offense.
_______4. The status of the person is important in determine the morality of his
action.
_______5. The intention of the doer of the act has a bearing in his accountability
of his action.

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate expanded knowledge and understanding on the norms of morality

2. Explain the role of mental frames or theories in moral experience
3. Classify the dominant theories in ethics .

Content

Preparatory Activities

Exercise (place your answer on p. 102)

Enumerate 3 human actions which you consider as immoral and cite your
reason why.

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 Developmental Activities

NORMS OF MORALITY

Definition of Norm
A norm is a standard of measurement. We measure the size, the weight, the
length, the duration, the intensity, the quantity, and the depth of something. We
measure objects, events, emotions, and persons.The moral qualities of human acts
are measured with the use of a norm or standard to support a judgment.
The norms of morality “are the criteria of judgment about the sorts of persons
we ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought to perform”
(Richard M. Gula:1)
Moral norms are the criteria for judging the quality of character, what sort a
person one ought,

Types of norm:
1. Eternal Divine Law (objective). It is the ultimate and absolute norm of morality;
independent of any standard.

2. Human Reason(subjective) It is related to the person’s conscience

I. Law as the object norm of morality

A. General Notion of Law
Law is a norm which governs nature and actions of things
• Law of Nature. Principles that governs the natural phenomena of the world
(e.g. biological system of humans)

• Natural Law. Refers to the free acts of rational beings

B. Moral Law Defined

Law is an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by one who
has the care of the community.
Law is a kind of imposition which necessities obedience on the part of the
subjects.
Essential Elements for a Law to be Reasonable:
1. It must be just; it promotes and upholds the inherent rights and dignity
of every human person
2. It must be honest; it should not contradict tin essence to any higher law
3. It must be possible of fulfillment (practical)
4. It must be relatively permanent
5. It must be promulgated(publicize)
6. It must be directed to common good
7. . It must be promulgated by one who has the care of the community
(e.g. president)

C. Division of Law
1. The Eternal Law: The Ultimate Norm of Morality:
Eternal Law is the plan of God in creating all creatures, both animate and
inanimate, giving to each of them its respective nature. The Book of Genesis tells the
story of creation.
St. Thomas Aquinas refers to eternal law as “ the exemplar of divine wisdom as

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directing all actions and movements”(1-11,93:1). St Augustine defines it as “the divine
reason or will of God commanding that the natural order of things be preserved and
forbidding that it be disturbed”(Contra Faustum Manicheum, 22:27)
The concept of Eternal law is inferred from the order and harmony of the
created universe.
Attributes of Eternal Law
1. Eternal law is eternal (endless) and unchangeable
2. Eternal law is absolutely universal

2. The Natural Law: The Remote Norm of Morality

Natural law refers to the operational tendencies of the human nature - the
chemical, biological, physiological, psychological, and rational properties of man as an
organism. St. Thomas Aquinas says that “the natural law is nothing else than the
rational creature’s participation of the eternal law” and “provides the possibilities and
potentialities which the human person can use to make human life truly human”. Paul
Tillich refers to the natural law as “the inner law of our true being, of our essential
created nature, which demands that we actualize what follows from it”. Pointing to it as
the “will of God”, he explains it to be – “the command to become what one potentially
is, a person within a community of persons”.
Natural law is the tendency of human nature towards growth and self-
fulfillment.
a. Attributes of Natural Law

i. It is universal - because it is the human nature which is shared by all men,

though realized differently according to their respective cultures.
ii. It is obligatory – because the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of
our desires and actuations which we cannot ignore without dire consequences.
iii. It has its proper sanctions.
iv. It is knowable or recognizable.
v. It is unchangeable.

b. The Contents of Natural Law

i. Formal norms relate to formation of character, what kind of person we ought

to be. These consists of such directives toward character development, such
as “be honest”, “be direct”, “be respectful”, etc.
ii. Material norms relate to actions, what actions we ought to do.
Material norms determine whether an act on account of its nature
conforms or does not conform to the formal norms.

The directives of formal norms are permanent and unchangeable because they
are the requirements of natural law. The directives of material norms are temporary
and changeable because they are the result of rational evaluation.
iii. Outlines of Natural law:
• Fundamental principles in their general applications
• General moral principles which sustain and preserve the basic relations
of man to God, to himself and to neighbors
• Applications of the general principles of morality to specific situations inl
life and society
• Remote conclusions derived by a process of reasoning

3. Human Positive Law and the Moral Law

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 Human positive law is derived from the natural law and promulgated for the
common good by a human agency which has a charge of a society, particularly of a
sovereign one; juridical order of the society (e.g. law of the state or civil law; law of the
church or ecclesiastical law)

II. Law as the subject norm of morality

A, Meaning of Conscience
• Cum’ (together) and ‘Scientia ’(to know)

• Se cond norm of morality

Conscience is the choice of a particular good in a given situation. People refer

to conscience as “the voice of God” – a whisper of admonition.
Conscience is the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done
because it is good, or what should be avoided because it is evil. The judgment is
“practical” because it leads to a course of action.
Conscience is “judgment of reason” because it derives from our understanding
of what ought to be done as good and what ought to be avoided as evil. This is how
actions are said to be in accordance with dictate of reason.
Conscience has two functions. Before the commission of an act, conscience
directs towards that which is good. After the commission of an act, conscience either
approves or reproves the act. A reproaching conscience punishes the doer with
remorse. an approving conscience rewards the doer with “peace of mind”.

B. Conscience as an Act of Intellect (Judgment of Reason)

1. It is an act of practical judgment of reason deciding upon an individual action as
good and to be performed or as evil and to be avoided
2. Conscience can only be applied to intellect
3. Only the intellect can detect the rightness or wrongness of our actions

C. Conscience as a Practical Moral Judgment

1. Deals itself with the moral quality of a person’s concrete act, dictating the person to
perform what is good and to refrain from doing what is bad or evil o
2. Extension of the natural law which guides man

D. Conscience as the Proximate Norm of Morality

1. Allows a person to have a direct and personal access in his conscience .
2. Must conform to a higher norm (eternal divine law)

E. Kinds of Conscience
According to the conscience’s:
• Harmony or disharmony with objective truth

1. Correct or True Conscience. It judges the good as good and evil as evil
2. Erroneous of False conscience. It mistakes the good as bad and what is
bad is good
a. Invincibly erroneous conscience. Kind of judgment where the error could
not have been avoided.
b. Vincibly erroneous conscience. .Kind of judgment where the error could
have been avoided if the person exerted diligence on his part .
c. Perplexed conscience. When faced with two alternative options, fears
that’s in is presenting both choices 

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 d. Pharisaical conscience. Imagines grave sins as small ones and magnifies
little offenses as serious

• Firmness in its judgment of the morality of the act

1. Certain Conscience-is sure whether something is good or bad, right or wrong,

moral or immoral
2. Doubtful Conscience is unsure whether something is good or bad, right or
wrong, moral or immoral.
3. Scrupulous Conscience is very cautious or extremely fearful to the extent that
the person refuses to act.
4. Lax Conscience. Takes what is wrong or sinful very lightly, even
considering it as something good and okay

F. Principles Governing Conscience

1. A certain conscience must always be obeyed, whatever it commands or
forbids
2. The invincibly erroneous conscience must be followed .The vincibly erroneous
conscience cannot be followed as legitimate rule of action
3. A person who is of lax conscience has the general and grave obligation to
reform this state of mind
4. The person with a perplexed type of conscience ,when making choices has to
‘postpone any action’
5. If a person has a doubtful conscience ,one may never act

G. Conscience vs. Civil Authority

Whenever there is a conflict between civil authority(state law) and divine
law (natural moral law), the person has to obey God rather than men

Compulsory Conscience
“ Our bond with the natural moral law”, (Bernard Haring), “ is an exalted
participation in the eternal law of God manifested by our conscience whose natural
function it is to reveal our likeness to God” (Law of Christ: 1-147).

► Conformity and Non-conformity

The conformity or non-conformity of a human act with the norms constitutes
morality. We recall the definition of Aristotle of the good as that which fits the function.
For example, it fits the function of a talented singer to sing well. Similarly, it fits the
function of a decent and honorable person to do what is honorable.

The Order of Reason

Every living thing acts in accordance with its nature. Man acts in a way proper
to him through the use of reason. “In a morality based on the order of reason”, writes
Richard Gula, “the human person is not subject to the God-given order of nature in the
same way the animals are. The human person does not have to conform to natural
pattern as a matter of fate.
Rather, nature provides the possibilities and potentialities which the human
person can use to make human life truly human. The given physical and biological
order does not provide moral norms; rather, it provides the data and the possibilities
for the human person to use to achieve human goals.

► Moral Pretension
It is, however, possible for a person to do good without having a good
character. People do laugh while deep inside they are hurting and unhappy. The
receptionist greets you with a most beautiful smile without a bit of respect for you. This

73
means an evil person can pretend to be good.
Ethical standard requires that we have a clean mind and a pure heart.. This is
how moral laws bind the whole of being-our senses, our emotions, our thoughts, our
desires, and our actions. And so we say that the authenticity of a good act comes from
the soul. If our soul is untainted, we may pretend to do evil but still remain good.

Definition of Framework
Framework is defined as a basic structure underlying a system or a concept. In ethics,
it refers to “a set of assumptions, concepts, values and practice that constitutes a way
of viewing reality.” Frameworks and principles in ethics dictate one's moral disposition
or the way a person resolves moral dilemmas

General Subject Areas of the the frameworks and principles in Ethics:

1. Meta-ethics
2. Normative Ethics
3. Applied Ethics

A. Meta-ethics is the branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality. At such, it
talks about the meaning, reference, and truth values of moral judgments. It also
explains what goodness and wickedness mean and how we know about them.
Studying the methods for choosing ethical principles and doing normative ethics can
be said to be part of this more basic branch of moral philosophy.

Meta-ethics deals with the following questions:

• Are there objective moral truths?
• What do the words “good”, “bad”, “right”, “wrong” mean?
• Are moral judgements a matter of subjective personal feeling?
• “Slavery is wrong” are we just making a claim about our customs or are we
making an objective declaration that is true regardless of what anybody may
think?
• How can we know if something is right or wrong?
• How may ethical propositions be supported or defended?
Classifications of Meta-ethics:

• Semantic classifications:

1. Cognitivism (moral realism, ethical subjectivism) vs Non-cognitivism

• Substantial classifications:

2. Moral universalism vs Moral realism

• Epistemological classifications:

3. Empiricism vs Rationalism vs Intuitionism

1. Cognitivism Vs Non-cognitivism

a. COGNITIVISM states that moral judgments convey propositions, that is, they

74
 are ‘truth bearers’ or they are either true or false; right and wrong are matters of
fact.

❖ Moral realism claims that the existence of moral facts and the truth (or
falsity) of moral judgments are independent of people’s thoughts and
perceptions. It maintains that morality is about objective facts, that is,
not facts about any person or group’s subjective judgment.

❖ Ethical subjectivism, on the other hand, holds that the truth (or falsity)
of ethical propositions are dependent on the attitudes or standards of a
person or group of persons. Subjectivism is obviously contrary to moral
realism.

b. NON-COGNITIVISM denies that moral judgments are either true or

false. It claims that ethical sentences do not convey authentic
propositions, hence are neither true nor false.

❖ Emotivism is the most popular form of non-cognitivist theory. It submits

that moral judgments are mere expressions of our emotions and
feelings.

2. Universalism Vs Relativism

a. MORAL UNIVERSALISM theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to

everybody in all places.

-Also called ‘moral objectivism’

.
-Believing that some behaviors are simply wrong, it also submits that if
something is right for one, then it is right for another. Moral universalism is
very much compatible with ‘moral realism’.

b. MORAL RELATIVISM on the other hand, submits that different moral facts
and principles apply to different persons or group of individuals.
- Believing that various cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong,
it also maintains that ethical standards also change over time even in the
same culture. Denying a single, objective standard for morality, it holds that
moral norms are equally true and morals are mere preferences. Noticeably,
it is very much compatible with ‘ethical subjectivism’.

3. Empiricism Vs Rationalism Vs Intuitionism

a. . MORAL EMPIRICISM is a meta-ethical stance which states that moral facts

are known through observation and experience. The theory is an extension
of ‘empiricism’ in epistemology which states that all knowledge of
matters of fact is derived from experience and that our mind is not
equipped with pre-experience concepts.
b. MORAL RATIONALISM contends that moral facts and principles are
knowable a priori (using logic and reason to form conclusion before
experience), that is, by reason alone and without reference to
experience. The theory relies on reason rather than intuition in justifying

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 a belief or action.
c. MORAL INTUITIONISM submits that moral truths are knowable by
intuition that is by immediate instinctive knowledge without reference to
any evidence.

B. Normative Ethics

Normative Ethics is the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally
speaking. As the name suggests, it examines ethical norms, that is, those guidelines
about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous, or just.

This branch evaluates standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions
and determines a moral course of action. Prescriptive in nature, it addresses specific
moral questions about what we should do or believe.

We do normative ethics if we justify norms like “Discrimination is wrong” or “We

must always act in accordance with our duty”. Just for easy distinction, whereas meta-
ethics tackles questions such as “What is goodness?” normative ethics deals with
issues like “What ought one to do?”

Classifications of Normative Ethics

1. Deontology is an ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or

duties. The term came from the Greek word deon which means ‘duty’, implying the
foundational nature of man’s duties or obligations. This system equates behaving
morally with adherence to duties or moral rules, and acting immorally with failure to
obey them. Also called nonconsequentialism, the system’s principles are submitted as
obligatory, regardless of the consequences that actions might produce.

Deontology – is guided by a individuals own personal sense of morality. It is concerned

with what people do not with the consequences of their actions. Rules as to which
action are obligatory, permissible in various situations are generally considered to be
duty-based ethics.

2. Teleology -refers to moral system that determines the moral value of actions by
their outcomes or results.
From the Greek word ‘telos’, which means ‘end,’ teleology takes into account the end
result of the action as the exclusive consideration of its morality. (Aristotle’s ‘telos’
however has a related but somewhat different meaning.)

Teleology deems an action as morally right if its favourable consequences are greater
than its adverse outcomes. Its most famous form is consequentialism which proposes
that morality is determined solely by a cost-benefit evaluation of the action’s
consequences.

3. VIRTUE ETHIICS

Virtue Ethics as a moral system, places emphasis on developing good habits of

character, like kindness and generosity, and avoiding bad character traits, or vices,
such as greed or hatred.
Virtue-based theories give importance to moral education which molds individuals to
habitually act in a virtuous manner. Focusing on the character of the agent, virtue
ethics describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous
person.

76
Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and
virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences. A virtue ethicist is likely to give you this kind of moral
advice: “Act as a virtuous person would act in your situation.”

C. Applied Ethics philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues. Using

philosophical methods, this area of concern in Ethics attempts to determine the
ethically correct course of action in specific realms of human action.
For a subject to be considered as an applied ethical issue, not only must it be a
matter of moral judgment, but also it has to be controversial. That is, there must be
considerable groups of people both for and against the issue.

Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 103

1. Write one word that best describes what you feel right now on finishing
this module and tell why you feel that way.

2. Write the important learnings you got from this module.

3. Write what you think these learnings can contribute in developing your
moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

Moral norms are the criteria for judging the quality of character, what sort a
person one ought, The eternal law is the objective norm of morality while the human
reason (conscience) is the subjective norm of morality.

Basic Theories as frameworks in ethics come in three general subject areas as

meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.

Assignment (place your answer on p. 103-104)

Make an online research about the characteristics of a good moral theory. Write an
essay on what this means to you.

References:

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