05 CENG8432 Fracture Mechanics of Composites, Sandwich Construction

AASTU_PhD CENG 8432 1-2 Mechanics of Composite Materials
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Fracture Mechanics of Composites, Sandwich
Materials Construction, Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites
Sandwich Construction
A sandwich panel is a layered structure …..

consisting of a thin facing material, or skin, +
bonded to either side of a thicker, low density, core.
It is a type of stresses‐skin construction with the skins carrying the major applied
loads, in‐plane loads and flatwise bending moments.
The stiffness, stability, configuration and strength of the panel are determined by
the skins, stabilised by the core.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
In the literature [Allen 1969, Plantema 1966, Vinson 1999, Zenkert 1997]…
There is the analysis and design aspects of sandwich constructions, e.g. beams,
panels, shells.
A sandwich construction is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Sandwich construction Fig. 2 Sandwich construction build up
AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 1

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The sandwich constructions are frequently used because of the following

characteristics:
• Mass savings with respect to conventional structures

• High specific stiffness (bending stiffness with respect to the mass)
• Good fatigue properties
• Sound‐damping properties
• Good thermal and acoustical insulation properties
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The sandwich construction is like an “I” cross‐section where the face sheets are
comparable with the flanges, carrying the tension and compression forces, and
the core of sandwich construction is comparable with a web, carrying the shear
forces.
Most times a honeycomb core, made of Al‐alloy, is used as a core in sandwich
construction applied for spacecraft and launch vehicles.
More information about the mechanics of honeycombs can be easily find in
somewhere of internet.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The major design aspects of sandwich constructions are:
• Attention shall be paid with respect to load introduction in the sandwich

construction, either via the edges (edge members) or at discrete points, e.g. in and
out of plane, bending, torque, etc
• The face sheets (facings) shall have a thickness to carry the tensile, compression
and shear forces (stresses) introduced in the sandwich structure.
• The core shall have adequate strength to carry the general shear forces and the
local shear forces introduced via the inserts.
• The core shall have adequate strength and stiffness properties to prevent local
and global buckling.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
• The core shall have good compression properties to prevent crushing of the core.
The crushing property is one of the design parameters to estimate the wrinkling
of the face sheet.
• The diameter of the cells (in case of honeycomb core) shall be selected to
prevent intercell buckling of the unsupported face sheet.
• The sandwich construction shall have good overall stiffness properties.
• The adhesive between the face sheets and the core shall have good strength
properties

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
<Optimum design>
: Determination of core and face sheet thickness for minimum mass
The optimum ratio between the core height (m) and face sheet thickness (m), can
be optimised with respect to a minimum mass (kg/m) of the sandwich
construction. The mass will be contributed by the mass of the face sheets (kg/m),
the mass of both face sheets (in this case equal face sheets) and the mass per unit
of area of both adhesive layers . The total mass per unit area becomes
During the optimisation the mass of the adhesive layers will be ignored.
The minimum mass optimization will be against:

• Bending stiffness • Strength • Face dimpling
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
In the following Table 10.1 equations for the minimum mass optimisation are
given [Allen 1969].

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
<Stresses>
The stresses will occur both in the face sheets and in the core.
The stress in the face sheets are caused by bending moments and in plane forces.
Non uniform in plane forces will lead to shear stresses. The face sheets are in
general very thin. That means that the stresses in the face sheets are more or less
membrane stresses and we assume no stress variations in the face sheets through
the thickness, when,
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
<<Stresses in face sheets>>
Bending stresses
The bending stress σfb in the face sheets of a sandwich construction due to a
bending moment per unit of width (Nm/m) is illustrated in Fig. 10.4.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Tensile, compression stresses
In plane stress σfn is caused by the in plane internal load N per unit of width [N/m].
This is shown in Fig. 10.5. The in plane loads are carried by both face sheets. The
core will not carry the in plane loads. The in plane tensile or compression stress
can be calculated with

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Total stress in face sheets
The total stress σf in the face sheets in the superposition of the bending stress σfb
with the in plane stress σfn. The total stress σf becomes
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
<< Shear stress >>
The maximum shear stress τ, caused by the shear force D per unit width (N/m),
can be calculated with the Jourawski method
where Sf is the first moment of area per unit width of the face sheet with
respect to the neutral line and I is the second moment of area per unit width of
the face sheet with respect to the neutral line.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Failure modes
Typical failure modes with respect to strength are:
• Facing failure: Initial failure may occur in either compression or tension in the
face sheet caused by insufficient panel thickness, face sheet thickness or face
sheet strength.
• Transverse shear failure: Caused by insufficient core strength or panel thickness.
• Local crushing of core: Caused by low core compression strength.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Buckling Sandwich Columns
Let L denote the length of the column, F the axial compression force, the core
thickness hc and the shear modulus Gc, the face sheets have a thickness tf, a width
b and an axial elastic modulus Ef. The sandwich column is illustrated in Fig.
The weakest bending stiffness of the sandwich column Ef I can be approximated

by
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The shear stiffness of the sandwich column GcA is given by
The Euler buckling of a pinned‐pinned column is
In the paper of Bazant [Bazant 2003], two expressions are given to calculate the
critical compression load for a sandwich column
Engesser published his equation in 1889 and Haringx published his equation in
1942.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Global Buckling Cylinder
The compression stresses introduced into the faces of the sandwich cylinder
subjected to an axial compression load F, where
The compression stress σx,f in the both equal thickness face sheets with thickness
tf is given by
where Nx is the constant running load (N/m) and R is the mean

radius of the cylinder.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Global Buckling Cylinder
The critical value Nx, cr of the running load per unit of circumference of a long
cylinder, simply supported, is [Vinson 1999]
where Ef is the Young’s modulus, νf is the Poisson’s ratio of the face sheet
material and Gc is the shear modulus of the core.
γ is the knock down factor related to initial imperfections and is given by,
[NASA SP‐8007]

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
In case
is above the yield stress, the Young’s modulus Ef shall be corrected with a
plasticity factor η.
In [NASA SP‐8007] it is recommended to replace with , where
where Esec is the secant and Etan is the tangent

modulus of elasticity.
The secant and the tangent modulus of elasticity are

illustrated in the stress‐strain curve.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Local Buckling
The load carrying capability or strength properties of the sandwich construction

are strongly influenced and reduced, due to local buckling. At local buckling the
actual stress is beyond load carrying capability of sandwich construction, e.g. in
the face sheets or in the core.
The following local buckling (failure modes) can be identified:
• Wrinkling of face sheets (faces): The skin may buckle inwards or outwards,
depending on the flatwise compression strength of the core, flat‐wise tensile
strength of skin/core bond [Ley 1999]. A strong bond may cause a core tension
failure. The skin flatness affects wrinkling load.
• Dimpling of face sheets: For cellular (honeycomb) or corrugated cores, where
skins may buckle or dimple into the spaces between core walls or corrugations.
Dimples may be permanent and grow across cell walls to form wrinkles.
• Shear crimpling: Appears as a local mode of failure, but is a general (global)
form of buckling. Occurs suddenly, often with core failure at crimp; also may cause
shear failure of skin/core bond.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The design equations for the mentioned local buckling failures are given in Table
10.3.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Example
We have a sandwich plate with Al‐alloy face sheets and an Al‐alloy honeycomb core
1/4‐5056‐.0015p (Table 10.5) with • tf = 0.2 , hc = 20, dc = 6.4mm • Ef = 70 GPa
• Ec = 2.17 Mpa • GL = 345, GT = 152,
The calculated critical stresses become for:.
plasticity factor η
must be used to
correct (lower) the
dimpling stress.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Combined Loads
When two principal stresses are in compression the following interaction

equation for wrinkling is suggested [Ley 1999] to calculate the margin of safety
using
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Inserts
Inserts are bonded in the sandwich construction core and used to introduce loads
in the sandwich construction. The insert is embedded in a potting material,
generally with a cylindrical shape. The potting shall be capable to transfer loads
from the insert into the core.
Inserts are used to connect bracketery to

the sandwich construction, e.g. boxes,
cleats to connect panels to each other.
Inertia loads introduce the following
loads via the inserts in the sandwich
construction, with D the shear force (N),
F the pull out / compression load (N), M
the bending moment (Nm) and T the
torque (Nm).

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The contribution of the typical sandwich element to load capability of inserts is

indicated in Table 10.4, [Insert Design Handbook, ESA/PSS‐03‐1202].
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The pre‐stress in the bolts, due to prescribed torques, is taken by the winding of the
threads and is not transferred into the sandwich construction.
The quasi‐static loads are for boxes less critical than random loads caused by the
random vibrations.
The 3σ acceleration , caused by random vibrations, can be calculated with
Miles’ equation
with fn:the natural frequency of mode with significant effective mass of the
mechanical system (e.g. spacecraft), Q the amplification factor (in general,
The 3σ random inertia load F 3σ can be obtained with
where M is the mass (kg) of the box.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Honeycomb mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of frequently applied Al‐alloy 5056 honeycomb cores

are illustrated in Table 10.5.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Typical connections
Some examples (Typical sandwich edge connections) of sandwich construction
connection are illustrated in Fig.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Exercises : Stiffness Sandwich Beam
A sandwich beam is simply supported at both ends as illustrated in Fig. 10.11.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite

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CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Metal Matrix Composites
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) comprise a relatively wide range of materials
defined by the metal matrix, reinforcement type, and reinforcement geometry.
In the area of the matrix, most metallic systems have been explored for use in
metal matrix composites, including Al, Be, Mg, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, and Ag.
By far the largest usage is in aluminum matrix composites.
From a reinforcement perspective, the materials used are typically ceramics since
they provide a very desirable combination of stiffness, strength, and relatively low
density. Candidate reinforcement materials include SiC, Al2O3, B4C, TiC, TiB2,
graphite, and a number of other ceramics. In addition, there has been work on
metallic materials as reinforcements, notably W and steel fibers
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The morphology of the reinforcement material is another variable of importance in
metal matrix composites. The three major classes of reinforcement morphology
are continuous fiber, chopped fiber or whisker, and particulate. Typically selection
of the reinforcement morphology is determined by the desired property/cost
combination. Generally, continuous fiber reinforced MMCs provide the highest
properties in the direction of the fiber orientation but are the most expensive.
Chopped fiber and whisker reinforced materials can produce significant property
improvements in the plane or direction of their orientation, at somewhat lower
cost. Particulates provide a comparatively more moderate but isotropic increase in
properties and are typically available at the lowest cost.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
By adding to the three variables of metallic matrix, reinforcement material, and
reinforcement morphology, the further options of reinforcement volume fraction,
orientation, and matrix alloy composition and heat treatment, it is apparent that
there is a very wide range of available material combinations and resultant
properties.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
 What are metal‐matrix composites?
Metal matrix composites have a metal matrix.
Examples include silicon carbide fibers in aluminum, graphite fibers in

aluminum.
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are a group of materials (such as metals,
alloys or intermetallic compounds) incorporated with various reinforcing
phases, such as particulates, whiskers or continuous fibres.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
In general, there are three kinds of metal matrix composites (MMCs):

(i) particle reinforced MMCs
(ii) short fiber or whisker reinforced MMCs
(iii) continuous fiber or sheet reinforced MMCs
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Typical Reinforcements Used in Metal Matrix Composites

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Advantages of MMCs
 Higher specific strength and modulus over metals.
 Lower coefficients of thermal expansion than metals by reinforcing with

graphite.
 Maintenance of high strength properties at high temperatures.
 Major weight savings due to higher strength‐to‐weight ratio

 Exceptional dimensional stability (compare, for example, SiC,/Al to Al)
 Higher elevated temperature stability, i.e., creep resistance
 Significantly improved cyclic fatigue characteristics
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Degrading properties in MMCs

 Are there any properties
which degrade when
metals are reinforced
with fibers?
2a
Yes, they may have
reduced ductility and
fracture toughness.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Typical mechanical properties of metal matrix composites
Property Units SiC/ Graphite/ Steel Aluminum

Aluminum Aluminum
Specific Gravity 2.6 2.2 7.8 2.6
Young’s modulus Msi 17 18 30 10
Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 175 65 94 34
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 6.9 10 6.5 12.8
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
REINFORCEMENTS
Reinforcement materials for metal matrix composites can be produced in the

form of continuous fibers, short fibers, whiskers, or particles.
The parameter that allows us to distinguish between these different forms of
reinforcements is called the aspect ratio.
Aspect ratio is nothing but the ratio of length to diameter (or thickness) of
the fiber, particle, or whisker.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Carbon Fibers
Carbon is a very versatile element. It is very

light, has a theoretical density of 2.27 g/cm3,
and exists in a variety of forms. The two most
important forms of carbon are diamond and
graphite.
It is the graphitic form of carbon that is
important in understanding the carbon fibers.
The hexagonal structure of carbon in the
graphitic form is shown in Fig. 2.2.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Carbon Fibers
The steps common to all processes of carbon fiber manufacture are as follows:
(a) Fiberization, i.e., extrusion of a polymer melt or solution into a precursor fiber.
(b) Stabilization (oxidation or thermosetting) is done at relatively low temperatures
(200‐450°C), usually in air. This renders the precursor infusible during subsequent
high temperature processing.
(c) Carbonization is carried out in an inert atmosphere (pure N2 generally) at 1000‐
2000°C. At the end of this step the fiber has 85‐99% carbon content.
(d) Graphitization (optional) is done in Ar or N2 at a temperature greater than
2500°C. This step increases the carbon content to more than 99% and imparts a
very high degree of preferred orientation to the fiber.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Boron Fiber
Boron is another elemental fiber, like carbon, that has

high strength and high stiffness.
It is commonly made by chemical vapor deposition

(CVD) on a substrate such as tungsten or carbon, see
Fig. 2.9.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Boron Fiber
Some important characteristics of any CVD process of making fibers are:
Essentially, a coating is deposited on a fibrous substrate. The result is a large

diameter sheath with a core, i.e., the fiber itself is a composite.
Unlike conventional fiber forming processes, the CVD fibers are not formed by
stretching or drawing, i.e., there is no lengthening; instead, lateral growth by
thickening occurs.
The final diameter of the fiber may be as much as 10 times that of the starting
fiber substrate.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Boron Fiber
Boron fiber made by deposition on a tungsten
substrate can result in complex reaction products at
the corelsheath interface. A boron fiber cross section
(100 pm diameter) is shown in Fig. 2.10(a) while Fig.
2.10(b) shows, schematically, the various subparts of
the cross‐section. Depending on the temperature
conditions during deposition, the W core may consist
of a series of compounds such as W, W2B, WB, W&,
and WB4. These tungsten boride phases form by
diffusion of B into W.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Boron Fiber

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Schematic of
Diffusion Bonding
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
The monotonic strength and stiffness of MMCs is usually much higher than that
of the unreinforced metal. Figure shows a general schematic of the evolution of
damage in a MMC during monotonic loading.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
This is shown schematically in Fig. 7.2. Let's assume a single high stiffness fiber
embedded in a lower modulus matrix.
The composite is loaded without direct
loading of the fiber itself. If a set of
parallel imaginary lines are drawn on
the composite, after loading the lines
will become distorted because of the
shear stresses generated by differing
axial displacements in fiber and matrix.
Thus, load transfer to the fiber occurs
by means of shear strains in the matrix.
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Let us consider the case of a purely elastic fiber in an elastic matrix
mathematically, Fig. 7.3. Let u be displacement in the matrix in the presence of
the fiber, at a distance x from one end, and let v be the displacement at x in the
absence of the fiber. If Pf is the normal load on the fiber, then we can write the
following expression for load transfer from the matrix to the fiber:
where B is a constant that

is a function of fiber
arrangement and matrix
and fiber properties.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
The exact expression for B is described later in this section. Differentiating eq. 1,
we get:
This second-order differential equation has the following solution:
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Tensile stress (σ) and shear

stress (τ) distribution in a
single fiber embedded in a
cylindrical matrix shell.
Figure shows the variation of τ and σ with distance x. At the ends of the fiber,
the axial stress is zero. It increases until it reaches of, in the center of the fiber
(assuming a sufficiently long fiber that will enable the stress to build to of of σfu).
The shear stress is a maximum at the fiber ends, and a minimum in the center
of the fiber.

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Ceramic Matrix Composites
What are ceramic matrix composites?
Ceramic matrix composites have matrices of alumina, calcium alumino

silicate (CAS), lithium alumino silicate (LAS).
Examples include Silicon Carbide/CAS and Carbon/LAS.
Advantages of CMCs
 High strength, hardness and high service temperatures
 Chemical inertness
 Low Density
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Table. Typical fracture toughness of monolithic materials
and ceramic matrix composites
Material Fracture Toughness, Fracture Toughness,

MPa m Ksi in
Epoxy 3 2.73
Aluminum Alloys 35 31.85
Silicon Carbide 3 2.73
SiC/A2O3 27 24.6
SiC/SiC 30 27.3

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Table 1.13 Typical mechanical properties of some
ceramic matrix composites
Property Units SiC/LAS SiC/CAS Steel Aluminum

Specific Gravity 2.1 2.5 7.8 2.6
Young’s modulus Msi 13 17.55 30.0 10.0
Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 72 58.0 94.0 34.0
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 2 2.5 6.5 12.8
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
G lass Im pregn ated

Fiber Tape
Fibers
G lass Slurry Tan k
Bin der Burn out

Stack of G lass Im pregn ated Manufacturing of
Fiber Tapes
500 o C
Ceramic Matrix
Pressure
Composites
‐ Slurry Infiltration
Hot Pressin g Fiber/G lass Com posite

800 - 925 o C

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Carbon‐Carbon Composites
 What are carbon‐carbon composites?
Carbon ‐ Carbon composites have carbon fibers in carbon matrix.
Advantages of Carbon‐Carbon Composites
 Gradual failure
 Withstand high temperatures
 Low creep at high temperatures
 Low density
 High thermal conductivity
 Low and tailorable coefficient of thermal expansion
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Table 1.14 Typical mechanical properties of carbon‐carbon
matrix composites
Property Units C-C Steel Aluminum

Specific Gravity 1.68 7.8 2.6
Young’s modulus Msi 1.95 30 10
Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 5.180 94 34
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 1.11 6.5 12.8

CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Carbon‐Carbon Manufacturing
Step 1 Step 2
Step 4 Step 5
Standard Lay-up
Gr/Phenolic and Pyrolysis Coating Sealing
Prepreg Cure
After 3 Impregnations
Resin
Impregnation
Step 3
CENG 8432
Mechanics of
Composite
Applications of C‐C Composites
 Space Shuttle Nose Cones
 Re‐entry temperature of 3092 K
 Aircraft Brakes
 Saves 450 kgs of mass
 2‐4 times durability vs. steel
 2.5 times specific heat of steel

05 CENG8432 Fracture Mechanics of Composites, Sandwich Construction

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AASTU_PhD CENG 8432 1-2 Mechanics of Composite Materials

A sandwich panel is a layered structure …..

Fig. 1 Sandwich construction Fig. 2 Sandwich construction build up

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 1

The sandwich constructions are frequently used because of the following

• Mass savings with respect to conventional structures

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 2

• Attention shall be paid with respect to load introduction in the sandwich

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 3

The minimum mass optimization will be against:

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 4

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 5

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 6

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 7

Typical failure modes with respect to strength are:

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 8

The weakest bending stiffness of the sandwich column Ef I can be approximated

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 9

where Nx is the constant running load (N/m) and R is the mean

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 10

where Esec is the secant and Etan is the tangent

The secant and the tangent modulus of elasticity are

The load carrying capability or strength properties of the sandwich construction

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 11

The calculated critical stresses become for:.

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 12

When two principal stresses are in compression the following interaction

Inserts are used to connect bracketery to

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 13

The contribution of the typical sandwich element to load capability of inserts is

The 3σ random inertia load F 3σ can be obtained with

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 14

The mechanical properties of frequently applied Al‐alloy 5056 honeycomb cores

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 15

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 16

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 17

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

 What are metal‐matrix composites?

Metal matrix composites have a metal matrix.

Examples include silicon carbide fibers in aluminum, graphite fibers in

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 18

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

In general, there are three kinds of metal matrix composites (MMCs):

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Typical Reinforcements Used in Metal Matrix Composites

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 19

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 Higher specific strength and modulus over metals.

 Lower coefficients of thermal expansion than metals by reinforcing with

 Maintenance of high strength properties at high temperatures.

 Major weight savings due to higher strength‐to‐weight ratio

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

AASTU, Department of Civil (Structural) Engineering 20

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .

Property Units SiC/ Graphite/ Steel Aluminum

Young’s modulus Msi 17 18 30 10

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 175 65 94 34

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 6.9 10 6.5 12.8

관계 ID가 rId3인 이미지 부분을 파일에서 찾을 수 없습니다 .