DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED CHANNELS SUBJECTED TO WEB CRIPPLING

By Ben Young1 and Gregory J. Hancock2

ABSTRACT: A series of tests on cold-formed unlipped channels with comparatively stocky webs and subjected
to web crippling is presented in this paper. The web slenderness values of the channels ranged from 15.3 to 45.
The tests were conducted under the four loading conditions (End-One-Flange, Interior-One-Flange, End-Two-
Flange, and Interior-Two-Flange) specified in the Australian/New Zealand and American specifications for cold-
formed steel structures. The test strengths are compared with the design strengths obtained using the specifica-
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tions. It is demonstrated that the design strengths predicted by the specifications are generally unconservative
for unlipped channels. Test strengths as low as 43% of the design strengths were obtained. Hence, new web
crippling design equations for unlipped channels are proposed in this paper. The proposed design equations are
derived based on a simple plastic mechanism model, and the web crippling strength is obtained by dispersing
the bearing load through the web. It is shown that the web crippling strengths predicted by the proposed design
equations are generally conservative for unlipped channels with web slenderness values of less than or equal to
45. It is concluded that the proposed design equations for unlipped channels having stocky webs are reliable.

INTRODUCTION specimens tested by Winter and Pian (1946), Zetlin (1955),

Web crippling is a form of localized buckling that occurs at
points of transverse concentrated loading or supports of thin-
walled structural members. Cold-formed channels that are un-
stiffened against this type of loading are susceptible to struc-
tural failure caused by web crippling. The computation of the
web crippling strength by means of theoretical analysis is quite
complex, as it involves a large number of factors, such as the
initial imperfection of web element, local yielding in the re-
gion of load application, instability of the web element, and
other factors. Hence, the current design rules found in most
specifications for cold-formed steel structures are empirical in
nature and may not adequately account for sections outside the
range of variables tested.
The empirical design rules used in the Australian/New Zea-
land Standard AS/NZS 4600 (SAA 1996) and the American
Iron and Steel Institute Specification (AISI 1996) for cold-
formed steel structures were based on the experimental find-
ings of Winter and Pian (1946), Zetlin (1955), and Hetrakul
and Yu (1978) for sections with slender webs. The four loading
conditions of prime interest are the end-one-flange (EOF), in-
terior-one-flange (IOF), end-two-flange (ETF), and interior-
two-flange (ITF) loadings. The majority of the tests performed
by the aforementioned authors are limited to the two basic
types of sections depicted in Fig. 1. The section shown in Fig.
1(a) has a pair of flat unreinforced single webs (webs without
stiffeners) with one stiffened flange and one unstiffened flange,
while that shown in Fig. 1(b) has a degree of restraint against
rotation of the web. However, in practice, the design recom-
mendations contained in AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI Specifi-
cation are also applied to other types of cross sections, such
as unlipped channels, which have a flat unstiffened web as
well as two unstiffened flanges. The design equations for chan-
nels, Z-sections, and hat sections are based on the tests on hat
sections illustrated in Fig. 1(a), while those for I-sections or
similar sections are based on the test results of the channel
back-to-back sections illustrated in Fig. 1(b). Furthermore, the
1
Asst. Prof., School of Civ. and Struct. Engrg., Nanyang Technological
Univ., Nanyang Ave., Singapore 639798.
2
BHP Steel Prof. of Steel Struct., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Syd-
ney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
Note. Associate Editor: Mark Bowman. Discussion open until March
1, 2002. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must
be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for this
paper was submitted for review and possible publication on July 18,
2000; revised April 24, 2001. This paper is part of the Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 10, October, 2001. 䉷ASCE,
ISSN 0733-9445/01/0010-1137–1144/$8.00 ⫹ $.50 per page. Paper No.
22476.
and Hetrakul and Yu (1978) were thin-gauge members (<3
mm) having yield stress less than 379 MPa (55 ksi). This is
due to the limitation of cold-forming technology in the past.
On the other hand, high-strength steels and thicker sections
can now be cold-formed.
According to Rhodes and Nash (1998), the computation of
web crippling strength obtained using empirical methods is
relatively rapid and safe within their range of application,
which does not imply that empirical methods are without
drawbacks. The equations, derived through empirical methods,
are only applicable for a specific range, and it may be difficult
to ascertain the underlying engineering principles in parts of
the complex equations. Therefore, there is a need to determine
the appropriateness of the current design rules on the various
types of steel members and to propose design equations that
are not purely empirical in nature but a combination of both
theoretical and empirical bases. In this paper, the appropriate-
ness of the current design rules in AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI
Specification for unlipped channels subjected to web crippling
is investigated. A series of tests was conducted under the four
loading conditions specified in AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI
Specification. The concentrated load or reaction forces were
applied by means of bearing plates. The flanges of the channel
specimens were not restrained by the bearing plates. The web
crippling test strengths are compared with the design strengths
obtained using AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI Specification. Fur-
thermore, a set of equations to predict the web crippling
strengths of unlipped channels with web slenderness (depth of
the flat portion of the web to thickness ratio, h/t) values less
than or equal to 45 is proposed. The proposed design equations
are derived based on a simple plastic mechanism model, and
these equations are calibrated with the test results. The pro-
posed design equations are derived through a combination of
theoretical and empirical analyses. Factors to take into account
FIG. 1. Basic Types of Sections for Web Crippling

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001 / 1137

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144

 for variation of the channel sections’ web slenderness have
also been incorporated in the proposed design equations. In
addition, the current design rules and the proposed design
equations used in the prediction of web crippling strength are
evaluated using reliability analysis. The safety indices of the
current design rules and the proposed design equations are
compared with the target safety index specified in the AISI
Specification.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
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strength quench and tempered steel having a nominal yield
stress of 690 MPa. All bearing plates were machined to spec-
ified dimensions, and the thickness was 50 mm for all bearing
plates. The bearing plates were designed to act across the full
flange widths of the channels, excluding the rounded corner.
The length of bearing (N) was chosen to be the full- and half-
TABLE 2. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental
Ultimate Loads for Channel 100 ⫻ 50 ⫻ 4
d bf t ri L PExp

Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)

Test Specimens
EOF100N50-a 99.3 50.4 3.85 4.1 490.0 34.4
A series of tests was performed on cold-formed unlipped EOF100N50-b 99.3 50.4 3.85 4.1 490.7 34.4
channels subjected to web crippling. The specimens were EOF100N25-a 99.3 50.5 3.85 4.1 440.0 31.4
EOF100N25-b 99.2 50.4 3.83 4.1 439.7 31.4
rolled from structural steel sheets having a nominal yield stress IOF100N50-a 99.2 50.4 3.83 4.1 529.2 57.9
of 450 MPa. The sections called DurGal (BHP 1997) have in- IOF100N50-b 99.2 50.5 3.83 4.1 530.9 57.9
line galvanizing, which increases their nominal yield stress IOF100N25-a 99.2 50.4 3.84 4.1 505.0 56.3
from 300 to 450 MPa when combined with roll-forming. The IOF100N25-b 99.3 50.4 3.84 4.1 506.0 56.3
test specimens consisted of six different section sizes, having ETF100N50 99.1 50.4 3.83 4.1 200.2 24.8
nominal thicknesses ranging from 4 to 6 mm, a nominal depth ETF100N25 99.4 50.3 3.83 4.1 175.0 22.6
ITF100N50 99.3 50.4 3.83 4.1 350.0 58.3
of the webs ranging from 75 to 300 mm, and nominal flange ITF100N25 99.2 50.4 3.84 4.1 325.0 66.3
widths ranging from 40 to 90 mm. The web slenderness (h/t) Mean 99.3 50.4 3.84 4.1
values ranged from 15.3 to 45.0, and these values were ob- SD 0.08 0.05 0.01 0.00
tained using the measured cross-section dimensions. The spec- COV 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.000
imens are considered to have stocky webs. Young and Han- Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.
cock (1998) also performed similar tests on cold-formed
channels having nominal yield stress of 250 MPa. In addition,
tests were also performed on channels brake-pressed from TABLE 3. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental
Ultimate Loads for Channel 125 ⫻ 65 ⫻ 4
zinc-coated Grade G450 structural steel sheets having a nom-
inal yield stress of 450 MPa and a nominal thickness of 1.5 d bf t ri L PExp
mm. The web slenderness values of these specimens were 60.9 Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)
and 62.7. EOF125N65-a 125.0 65.5 3.85 3.9 594.0 35.3
The specimen length (L) was determined according to AS/ EOF125N65-b 124.9 65.5 3.84 3.9 593.4 35.3
NZS 4600 and the AISI Specification. Generally, the clear dis- EOF125N32-a 125.6 65.7 3.84 3.9 528.8 29.7
tance between opposed loads was set to be 1.5 times the over- EOF125N32-b 125.4 65.6 3.84 3.9 529.2 29.7
all depth of the web, rather than 1.5 times the depth of the flat IOF125N65-a 125.0 65.7 3.86 3.9 618.5 63.6
IOF125N65-b 125.0 65.6 3.86 3.9 619.3 63.6
portion of the web, the latter being the minimum specified in IOF125N32-a 125.0 65.5 3.86 3.9 587.0 57.4
the specifications. Tables 1–6 show the measured test speci- IOF125N32-b 125.0 65.7 3.86 3.9 586.8 57.4
men dimensions using the nomenclature defined in Fig. 2, ETF125N65 125.6 65.4 3.83 3.9 252.5 28.2
where d is the overall depth of web, bf is the overall width of ETF125N32 125.3 65.3 3.84 3.9 219.8 23.4
flange, t is the thickness, and ri is the inside corner radius of ITF125N65(1) 125.0 65.6 3.84 3.9 440.0 60.4
the channel sections. ITF125N65(2) 124.9 65.5 3.84 3.9 440.1 59.6
ITF125N32(1) 125.1 65.6 3.85 3.9 407.7 64.4
ITF125N32(2) 124.9 65.3 3.85 3.9 407.5 63.8
Bearing Plates Mean 125.1 65.5 3.85 3.9
SD 0.25 0.13 0.01 0.00
The load or reaction forces were applied by means of bear- COV 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.000
ing plates. The bearing plates were fabricated using high- Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.

TABLE 1. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental

Ultimate Loads for Channel 75 ⫻ 40 ⫻ 4 TABLE 4. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental
Ultimate Loads for Channel 200 ⫻ 75 ⫻ 5
d bf t ri L PExp
Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) d bf t ri L PExp
a Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)
EOF75N40-a 74.5 40.2 3.84 3.9 397.0 23.9
EOF75N40-b 74.4 40.3 3.84 3.9 396.0 23.9a EOF200N75-a 198.7 75.8 4.71 4.2 839.8 49.3
EOF75N20-a 74.3 40.3 3.84 3.9 355.2 24.6a EOF200N75-b 198.8 75.8 4.71 4.2 839.5 49.3
EOF75N20-b 74.4 40.4 3.84 3.9 354.0 24.6a EOF200N37-a 198.8 76.0 4.72 4.2 764.6 43.7
IOF75N40-a 74.6 40.4 3.85 3.9 444.3 49.0 EOF200N37-b 198.8 75.8 4.74 4.2 764.5 43.7
IOF75N40-b 74.6 40.3 3.85 3.9 446.8 49.0 IOF200N75-a 198.9 75.9 4.74 4.2 855.2 94.5
IOF75N20-a 74.6 40.4 3.86 3.9 424.8 47.2 IOF200N75-b 198.7 75.9 4.73 4.2 854.2 94.5
IOF75N20-b 74.5 40.4 3.86 3.9 424.1 47.2 IOF200N37-a 198.7 75.9 4.72 4.2 816.8 91.2
ETF75N40 74.3 40.5 3.85 3.9 152.0 22.1 IOF200 N37-b 198.8 75.9 4.74 4.2 817.5 91.2
ETF75N20 74.4 40.4 3.84 3.9 133.6 18.3 ETF200N75 198.9 75.9 4.72 4.2 375.3 40.2
ITF75N40 74.5 40.5 3.84 3.9 263.8 51.3 ETF200N37 198.7 75.9 4.72 4.2 336.9 31.2
ITF75N20 74.6 40.5 3.84 3.9 243.0 54.9 ITF200N75 198.7 75.9 4.72 4.2 675.2 100.1
Mean 74.5 40.4 3.85 3.9 ITF200N37 198.8 76.0 4.73 4.2 638.0 99.8
SD 0.11 0.09 0.01 0.00 Mean 198.8 75.9 4.73 4.2
COV 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.000 SD 0.08 0.07 0.01 0.00
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN. COV 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.000
a
Overall twisting failure. Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.

1138 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144

 TABLE 5. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental labels ‘‘EOF125N65-a’’ and ‘‘ITF125N65(1)’’ define the fol-
Ultimate Loads for Channel 250 ⫻ 90 ⫻ 6 lowing specimens:
d bf t ri L PExp
Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) • The first three letters indicate that the loading conditions
EOF250N90-a 249.3 90.1 5.99 7.9 1,018.1 64.3 End-One-Flange (EOF) or Interior-Two-Flange (ITF)
EOF250N90-b 249.3 90.0 5.99 7.9 1,014.3 64.3 were used in the test.
EOF250N45-a 249.7 89.9 5.99 7.9 925.9 61.3 • The next three digits (125) are the overall depth of the
EOF250N45-b 249.5 89.8 5.99 7.9 921.8 61.3 web in mm (125 mm).
IOF250N90-a 249.8 89.9 5.99 7.9 1,023.0 142.8 • The notation ‘‘N65’’ indicates the length of bearing in mm
IOF250N90-b 249.6 89.8 5.99 7.9 1,020.1 142.8 (65 mm).
IOF250N45-a 249.2 90.0 5.98 7.9 974.3 132.3
• The last letter ‘‘a’’ indicates that a pair of specimens (‘‘a’’
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IOF250N45-b 249.3 90.0 5.99 7.9 976.4 132.3

ETF250N90 249.2 89.8 5.99 7.9 465.1 50.6 and ‘‘b’’) was used in the test. A pair of specimens was
ETF250N45 249.4 89.9 5.98 7.9 421.0 46.9 used only in the EOF and IOF loading conditions.
ITF250N90 249.6 90.0 6.01 7.9 838.4 148.5 • If a test was repeated, then ‘‘(1)’’ indicates the first test
ITF250N45 249.5 89.9 5.99 7.9 796.5 148.4 and ‘‘(2)’’ indicates the second test.
Mean 249.5 89.9 5.99 7.9
SD 0.20 0.10 0.01 0.00
COV 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 These specimens belong to the channel 125 ⫻ 65 ⫻ 4 section,
where the nominal overall depth of web is 125 mm, the overall
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.
width of the flange is 65 mm, and the thickness of the channel
section is 4 mm.
TABLE 6. Measured Specimen Dimensions and Experimental
Ultimate Loads for Channel 300 ⫻ 90 ⫻ 6 Material Properties
d bf t ri L PExp The material properties of the test specimens were deter-
Specimen (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) mined by tensile coupon tests. The coupons were taken from
EOF300N90-a 298.6 90.9 6.00 8.4 1,167.5 64.8 the center of the web plate in the longitudinal direction of the
EOF300N90-b 298.5 91.1 6.00 8.4 1,170.1 64.8 finished specimens. The tensile coupons were prepared and
EOF300N45-a 298.6 91.0 6.00 8.4 1,079.0 62.5 tested according to the Australian Standard AS 1391 (SAA
EOF300N45-b 298.4 91.1 6.01 8.4 1,077.7 62.5
1991) for the tensile testing of metals using 12.5 mm wide
IOF300N90-a 298.7 91.3 6.00 8.4 1,169.0 143.4
IOF300N90-b 298.8 90.9 6.00 8.4 1,169.8 143.4 coupons of gauge length 50 mm. All the coupons were tested
IOF300N45-a 298.6 91.3 6.00 8.4 1,125.0 134.6 in a 300 kN capacity MTS displacement controlled testing
IOF300N45-b 298.5 91.3 6.00 8.4 1,124.3 134.6 machine using friction grips. A calibrated extensometer of 50
ETF300N90 298.5 90.9 5.98 8.4 539.6 49.4 mm gauge length was used to measure the longitudinal strain.
ETF300N45 298.3 91.2 6.01 8.4 495.2 45.4 A data acquisition system was used to record the load and the
ITF300N90 298.8 90.9 6.00 8.4 990.0 149.1
gauge length extensions at regular intervals during the tests.
ITF300N45 298.6 91.0 5.97 8.4 944.1 144.6
Mean 298.6 91.1 6.00 8.4 The static load was obtained by pausing the applied straining
SD 0.15 0.17 0.01 0.00 for one minute near the 0.2% tensile proof stress and the ul-
COV 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.000 timate tensile strength. This allowed the stress relaxation as-
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN. sociated with plastic straining to take place.
Table 7 summarizes the material properties determined from
the coupon tests, namely, the nominal and the measured static
0.2% tensile proof stress (␴0.2), the static tensile strength (␴u),
and the elongation after fracture (εu) based on a gauge length
of 50 mm. The 0.2% proof stresses were used as the corre-
sponding yield stresses. The stress-strain curves obtained from
the coupon tests are detailed in Young and Hancock (1999).

Loading Conditions and Test Rig

The channel specimens were tested using the four loading
conditions according to AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI Specifi-
cation. These loading conditions are EOF, IOF, ETF, and ITF,
as shown in Fig. 3.
The test setup of IOF loading is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 for
the front and end views, respectively. Two channel specimens
were used in the test to provide symmetric loading. The spec-

TABLE 7. Nominal and Measured Material Properties

Measured
FIG. 2. Definition of Symbols Channel Nominal
d ⫻ bf ⫻ t ␴0.2 ␴0.2 ␴u εu
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
flange widths of the channels. The flanges of the channel spec-
imens were not restrained by the bearing plates. 75 ⫻ 40 ⫻ 4 450 450 525 20
100 ⫻ 50 ⫻ 4 450 440 545 20
125 ⫻ 65 ⫻ 4 450 405 510 23
Specimen Labeling 200 ⫻ 75 ⫻ 5 450 415 520 24
250 ⫻ 90 ⫻ 6 450 445 530 21
In Tables 1–6, the specimens are labeled such that the load- 300 ⫻ 90 ⫻ 6 450 435 535 23
ing condition, the depth of the web, and the length of the Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.
bearing could be identified from the label. For example, the
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001 / 1139

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144

 top of the specimens. Photographs and the test arrangement of
EOF loading are given in Young and Hancock (1999).
For ETF and ITF loading conditions, two identical bearing
plates of the same width were positioned at the end and mid-
length of each specimen, respectively. Photographs of the ETF
test are shown in Figs. 6 and 7 for the front and end views,
respectively. Only one channel specimen was used in the ETF
and ITF tests, since the loads were always in the line of action
of the force. Hinge supports were simulated by two half-
rounds. Web deformations of the specimen were measured be-
tween the two bearing plates, and the web deformations ob-
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tained by the average readings of the three transducers.

A 2,000 kN capacity DARTEC servo-controlled hydraulic
FIG. 3. Loading Conditions of Web Crippling Tests testing machine was used to apply a compressive force to the
test specimens. Displacement control was used to drive the
hydraulic actuator at a constant speed of 0.8 mm/min. A
SPECTRA data acquisition system was used to record the load
and the transducer readings at regular intervals during the tests.
The static load was recorded by pausing for 1 min near the
ultimate load. This allowed the stress relaxation associated
with plastic straining to take place.

FIG. 4. Front View of Interior-One-Flange (IOF) Test Setup

FIG. 6. Front View of End-Two-Flange (ETF) Test Setup

FIG. 5. End View of Interior-One-Flange (IOF) Test Setup

imens were bolted to load transfer blocks at the end supports,

and a bearing plate was positioned at the midlength of the
specimens. Hinge and roller supports were simulated by half
rounds and Teflon pads. Transducers were used to record the
web deformations of the specimens, so that deformations were
taken between the bearing plate and the bottom of the speci-
mens.
For EOF loading, two specimens were bolted to a load
transfer block at the central loading point. Two identical bear-
ing plates of the same width were positioned at both ends of
the specimens. Hinge and roller supports were also simulated
by half rounds and Teflon pads. The web deformations of the
specimens were measured between the bearing plates and the FIG. 7. End View of End-Two-Flange (ETF) Test Setup

1140 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144

 0.106
ITF
Test Results

0.43
0.47

0.56

0.48
0.51
0.58
0.55
0.60
0.62
0.63
0.56
0.57
0.59
0.58
The experimental ultimate web crippling loads per web

Comparison, PExp/Pn
(PExp) are given in Tables 1–6. Two tests were repeated, and

0.104
ETF
0.62
0.54

0.66

1.16
0.70
0.68
0.79
0.70
0.76
0.63
0.63
0.62
0.63
0.62
these specimens are ITF125N65 and ITF125N32. The test re-
sults for the repeated tests are very close to their first test
values, with a minimum difference of less than 1.4%. The

0.094
small difference between the repeated tests demonstrated the

IOF
0.55
0.54

0.67

1.22
0.65
0.66
0.73
0.69
0.72
0.73
0.67
0.66
0.69
0.68
reliability of the test results. For specimens EOF75N40 and
EOF75N20 (stockier web having h/t = 15.3) subjected to the
EOF loading condition, web crippling was not observed at
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(0.74)
(0.80)

0.084
EOF
ultimate load during testing, but specimens failed in overall

0.96

2.76
1.07
1.04
1.07
0.97
1.01
0.96
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.91
twisting of the sections. The applied compressive loads per
web are plotted against the measured web deformations for all
channel specimens and are detailed in Young and Hancock

Mean, Pm
COV, Vp
Safety Index, ␤
108.9
107.8
161.2
159.6
263.1
260.6
253.1
250.7
118.5
117.7
114.4
113.5
ITF
(1999).

AISI and AS/NZS 4600, Pn

COMPARISON OF TEST STRENGTHS WITH

ETF
35.5
33.8
35.3
33.2
35.9
33.3
52.8
49.2
80.9
75.6
78.4
73.3
CURRENT DESIGN STRENGTHS

Comparison of Web Crippling Test Strengths with Current Design Strengths

(kN)
The web crippling loads per web obtained from the tests
are compared with the nominal web crippling strengths pre-

89.7
86.7
88.8
85.0
87.2
82.6
130.7
124.1

201.8
206.8
197.0
211.9
IOF
dicted using the Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS
4600 (SAA 1996) and the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI 1996) Specification for cold-formed steel structures. AS/

EOF
32.1
30.6
32.1
30.3
33.0
30.6
49.0
45.7
75.0
70.1
73.4
68.6
NZS 4600 has adopted the web crippling design rules from
the AISI Specification, and no changes are introduced into the
web crippling design rules (Section C3.4 of the AISI Specifi-

60.4, 59.6a
64.4, 63.8a
cation), except that the provision for using high strength steels

51.3
54.9
58.3
66.3

100.1
99.8
148.5
148.4
149.1
144.6
ITF
with a yield stress greater than 459 MPa (66.5 ksi) in equations
Experimental Load per Web, PExp
C3.4-1, C3.4-2, and C3.4-6 of the AISI Specification has not
yet been adopted in AS/NZS 4600. Table 8 shows the com-
parison of the test strengths (PExp) with the unfactored design
strengths (Pn). The design strengths were calculated using the ETF
22.1
18.3
24.8
22.6
28.2
23.4
40.2
31.2
50.6
46.9
49.4
45.4
(kN)

average measured cross-section dimensions and the measured

material properties as detailed in Tables 1–6 and 7, respec-
tively. A value of 203,000 MPa specified in the AISI Specifi-
49.0
47.2
57.9
56.3
63.6
57.4
94.5
91.2
142.8
132.3
143.4
134.6
IOF

cation was used for the Young’s modulus of elasticity (E ) in

calculating the predicted design strength of the channels.
The current design strengths (Pn) predicted by the specifi-
23.9b
24.6b
EOF

34.4
31.4
35.3
29.7
49.3
43.7
64.3
61.3
64.8
62.5
cations are unconservative, except that the specifications
closely predicted the web crippling strengths for the EOF load-
ing condition in most of the tested channels. The average val-
ues of the web crippling strength of specimens subjected to
10.4
5.2
13.0
6.5
16.9
8.4
15.9
7.9
15.0
7.5
15.0
7.5
N/t

IOF, ETF, and ITF loading conditions were reached in the tests
at 67, 66, and 56% of the values predicted by the specifications
TABLE 8.

respectively, as shown in Table 8. It is noteworthy that test

Ratio

1.01
1.01
1.07
1.07
1.01
1.01
0.89
0.89
1.32
1.32
1.40
1.40
ri /t

strengths as low as 43% of the current design strength were

obtained in the test for a certain specimen subjected to the ITF Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.
loading condition.
15.3
15.3
21.7
21.7
28.5
28.5
38.3
38.3
37.0
37.0
45.0
45.0
h/t
Measured

PROPOSED DESIGN EQUATIONS

0.2% proof
stress, ␴0.2

The nominal web crippling strength (Pn) of unlipped chan-

(MPa)
450
450
440
440
405
405
415
415
445
445
435
435

nels calculated according to AS/NZS 4600 (SAA 1996) and

AISI (1996) design rules are generally unconservative, as
shown in Table 8. This is probably because the current design
rules were calibrated for sections with more slender webs
(h/t > 60) and the majority of the tests were performed on the
length, N
Bearing

(mm)
40.0
20.0
50.0
25.0
65.0
32.5
75.0
37.5
90.0
45.0
90.0
45.0

section shown in Fig. 1(a), as mentioned in the Introduction.

Overall twisting failure.

Hence, design equations for unlipped channels with stockier

webs are proposed in this paper. It is assumed that the bearing
load is applied eccentrically to the web due to the presence of
the corner radii, which produces bending of the web out of its
Second test.
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6

plane, thus causing a plastic mechanism as shown in Fig. 8.

⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
dimensions)
d ⫻ bf ⫻ t

A plastic mechanism model is used to establish design equa-

40
40
50
50
65
65
75
75
90
90
90
90
(nominal
Channel

tions that account for the eccentric loading of the web. This
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
(mm)

approach is similar to that used for square and rectangular

75
75
100
100
125
125
200
200
250
250
300
300

b
a

hollow sections (SHS and RHS) by Zhao and Hancock (1992,

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001 / 1141

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144


Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology on 10/02/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
FIG. 8. Mechanism Model: (a) One Flange Loading (EOF and IOF);
(b) Two Flange Loading (ETF and ITF)
FIG. 9. Assumed Plastic Hinge Position and Mechanism Length, Nm:
(a) Interior Loading; (b) End Loading
1995) to determine the web crippling strengths for both inte-
rior and end bearing loads. These equations have been used in
the Australian Standard AS 4100 (SAA 1998) for steel struc-
tures. The SHS and RHS tested by Zhao and Hancock also
had stockier webs than were intended for the AS/NZS 4600
and AISI web crippling equations. In addition, the proposed
design equations for unlipped channels are calibrated with the
test results. Hence, the equations are derived through a com-
bination of theoretical and empirical analyses.
The proposed equations for channel sections are summa-
rized as
Ppm =
MpNm
r
冋1.44 ⫺ 0.0133 冉 冊册
h
t
where
fyt2
Mp =
4 rication variables. These values are obtained from BHP Struc-
t tural and Pipeline Products (1998), where Mm = 1.08, Fm =
r = ri ⫹
2
再
N ⫹ id for interior loading
Nm = ed
N⫹ for end loading
2
in which Ppm = web crippling strength predicted by using the
plastic mechanism model; Mp = plastic moment per unit
length; r and ri = centerline and inside corner radii, respec-
tively; h = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along
the plane of the web; t = thickness of the web; fy = yield stress;
d = overall depth of the web; and N = length of the bearing.
1142 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001
J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144
In equation (4), Nm is the assumed mechanism length, as
shown in Figs. 9(a and b) for interior and end loading, re-
spectively. It is based on an assumption that the dispersion
slope of the load through the corner and the web is 1:1 with
correction factors i and e for interior loading and end loading,
respectively. The correction factors for interior loading are i =
1.3 and 1.4 for IOF and ITF, respectively, and the correction
factors for end loading are e = 1.0 and 0.6 for EOF and ETF,
respectively. Eq. (1) also accounts for the web slenderness (h/
t) of the channel sections. The use of the term [1.44 ⫺
0.0133(h/t)] avoids the need for a separate buckling check as
in AS 4100 (SAA 1998) and the AISC Specification (1993).
COMPARISON OF TEST STRENGTHS WITH
PROPOSED DESIGN STRENGTHS
The experimental ultimate web crippling loads per web
(PExp) obtained from the tests are compared in Table 9 with
the proposed design strengths (Ppm) using the plastic mecha-
nism model. The proposed design strengths were calculated
using the average measured cross-section dimensions and the
measured material properties as detailed in Tables 1–6 and 7,
respectively.
The proposed design strengths (Ppm) are generally conser-
vative. The average values of the web crippling strength of
specimens subjected to EOF, IOF, ETF, and ITF loading con-
ditions were reached in the tests at 104, 103, 107, and 105%
of the values predicted by the proposed design equations, re-
spectively, as shown in Table 9. The plastic mechanism model
approach, therefore, appears to be suitable for unlipped chan-
nels with a web slenderness (h/t) value of less than or equal
to 45.
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
The safety index (␤) is a relative measure of the safety of
the design. A lower target safety index of 2.5 for structural
members is recommended as a lower limit for the AISI Spec-
ification (1996). In general, if the safety index is greater than
2.5 (␤ > 2.5), then the design is considered to be reliable.
The existing resistance (capacity) factor (␾) of 0.75 for web
crippling strength of single unreinforced webs is given by the
AS/NZS 4600 (SAA 1996) and the AISI Specification (1996).
In this paper, the resistance (capacity) factor (␾ = 0.75) is used
in the reliability analysis. A load combination of 1.25DL ⫹
1.50LL, as specified in Australian Standard AS 1170.1 (SAA
1989), is also used in the analysis, where DL = dead load and
LL = live load. Accordingly, the safety index may be given as
(1)
ln 冉
MmFmPm
0.691␾
冊
␤= (5)
兹V 2M ⫹ V 2F ⫹ CPV 2P ⫹ 0.212
The statistical parameters Mm, Fm, VM, and VF are mean values
(2) and coefficients of variation for material properties and fab-
(3) 0.97, VM = 0.063, and VF = 0.031. The statistical parameters
Pm and Vp are mean value and coefficient of variation for the
design equations, as shown in Tables 8 and 9 for current design
(4) rules and proposed design equations, respectively. The correc-
tion factor CP is used to account for the influence due to a
small number of tests (Peköz and Hall 1988; Tsai 1992), and
the factor CP is given in equation F1.1-3 of the AISI Specifi-
cation (1996). The safety index in equation (5) is detailed in
Rogers and Hancock (1996).
The safety indices (␤) of the current design rules to predict
the web crippling strengths for the four loading conditions are
much lower than the minimum target safety index (␤ = 2.5),
 0.124
ITF
except for the EOF loading condition, as shown in Table 8.

1.00
1.25
0.99
1.30
0.92
1.13
0.86
0.96
0.97
1.08
1.02
1.08
1.05

2.86
Safety indices as low as 0.48 were calculated for the ITF load-
ing condition. However, this is not the case for the proposed

Comparison, PExp /Ppm

design equations; the safety indices are higher than the target

0.134
ETF
1.00
1.22
1.00
1.33
1.01
1.22
0.91
0.98
0.88
1.13
0.95
1.17
1.07

2.86
value for the four loading conditions, as shown in Table 9.
The proposed design equations are much more reliable than
the current design rules. The proposed design equations pro-

0.081
IOF
duce reliable limit state designs when calibrated with the ex-
1.01
1.14
1.04
1.18
1.02
1.08
0.86
0.94
0.99
1.03
1.04
1.07
1.03

3.08
(0.87) isting resistance (capacity) factor (␾ = 0.75).
(1.21)
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CONCLUSIONS

0.144
EOF

1.36
1.01
1.14
0.86
0.97
0.86
1.04
0.94

1.04

2.66
1.11

1.11
A test program on cold-formed unlipped channels subjected
to web crippling has been presented in this paper. Channel

Mean, Pm
COV, Vp
Safety Index, ␤
specimens having a nominal yield stress of 450 MPa with
51.1
44.0
58.6
50.9
65.7
56.8

104.0
152.5
136.9
146.9
133.9
116.3
ITF

different plate slendernesses of the web were tested. Web slen-

Proposed Design Strength, Ppm

derness values ranging from 15.3 to 45 have been investigated.

The channel specimens are considered to have stocky webs. The
ETF
22.1
15.0
24.7
17.0
28.0
19.2
44.3
32.0
57.2
41.6
51.9
38.9
specimens were tested using the four loading conditions (EOF,
Comparison of Web Crippling Test Strengths with Proposed Design Strengths

IOF, ETF, and ITF), according to the Australian/New Zealand

(kN)

Standard AS/NZS 4600 (SAA 1996) and the American Iron

48.4
41.4
55.5
47.8
62.2
53.4
109.8
97.4
143.9
128.2
138.3
125.3

and Steel Institute (AISI 1996) Specification for cold-formed

IOF

steel structures. The concentrated load or reaction forces were

applied by means of bearing plates. The flanges of the channel
specimens were not restrained by the bearing plates.
EOF
27.3
20.3
30.9
23.2
34.9
26.0
57.4
45.1
74.6
58.9
69.2
56.2

The test strengths were compared with the current design

strengths obtained using AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI Specifi-
cation. It is demonstrated that the current design strengths pre-
60.4, 59.6a
64.4, 63.8a

dicted by the specifications are unconservative for unlipped

51.3
54.9
58.3
66.3

100.1
99.8
148.5
148.4
149.1
144.6

channels (single unreinforced webs), except that the specifi-

ITF
Experimental Load per Web, PExp

cations closely predicted the web crippling strengths for the

EOF loading condition in most of the tested channels. For a
certain specimen subjected to ITF loading condition, the test
strength is only 43% of the current design strength predicted
ETF
22.1
18.3
24.8
22.6
28.2
23.4
40.2
31.2
50.6
46.9
49.4
45.4

by the specifications. It is recommended that the web crippling

(kN)

design equations in AS/NZS 4600 and the AISI Specification

be limited to web slenderness values greater than 45 when
49.0
47.2
57.9
56.3
63.6
57.4
94.5
91.2
142.8
132.3
143.4
134.6
IOF

applied to unlipped channels.

Web crippling design equations for unlipped channels have
been proposed in this paper. The proposed design equations
23.9b
24.6b
EOF

34.4
31.4
35.3
29.7
49.3
43.7
64.3
61.3
64.8
62.5

are derived based on a simple plastic mechanism model with

some adjustment for web slenderness, and these equations are
calibrated with the test results, which take accounts of the
variation of the web slenderness of the channel sections. The
10.4
5.2
13.0
6.5
16.9
8.4
15.9
7.9
15.0
7.5
15.0
7.5
N/t

proposed design equations are derived through a combination

of theoretical and empirical analyses. It has been shown that
TABLE 9.

the proposed design strengths are generally conservative for

Ratio

1.01
1.01
1.07
1.07
1.01
1.01
0.89
0.89
1.32
1.32
1.40
1.40
ri /t

unlipped channels having a nominal yield stress of 450 MPa

Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa; 1 kip = 4.45 kN.

with web slenderness values of less than or equal to 45. It is

also recommended that the web crippling strength of unlipped
15.3
15.3
21.7
21.7
28.5
28.5
38.3
38.3
37.0
37.0
45.0
45.0
h/t

channels having stocky webs can be calculated using the pro-

Measured

posed design equations.

The reliability of the current design rules and the proposed
0.2% proof
stress, ␴0.2

design equations have been evaluated using reliability analy-

(MPa)
450
450
440
440
405
405
415
415
445
445
435
435

sis. In general, the safety indices of the current design rules

are much lower than the target safety index of 2.5, as specified
in the AISI Specification, whereas the safety indices of the
proposed design equations are higher than the target value.
length, N

Therefore, the proposed design equations are much more re-

Bearing

(mm)
40.0
20.0
50.0
25.0
65.0
32.5
75.0
37.5
90.0
45.0
90.0
45.0

liable than the current design rules for the prediction of web
Overall twisting failure.

crippling strength of unlipped channels having stocky webs.

The proposed design equations are capable of producing reli-
able limit state designs when calibrated with the existing re-
sistance (capacity) factor (␾ = 0.75).
Second test.
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
dimensions)
d ⫻ bf ⫻ t

40
40
50
50
65
65
75
75
90
90
90
90

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(nominal
Channel

⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
⫻
(mm)

The writers are grateful to the Australian Research Council and BHP
75
75
100
100
125
125
200
200
250
250
300
300

b
a

Steel Structural and Pipeline Products for their support, through an ARC

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001 / 1143

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144

 Collaborative Research Grant. Test specimens were provided by BHP sections subject to combined actions.’’ J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 118(3),
Steel Structural and Pipeline Products. 648–668.
Zhao, X. L., and Hancock, G. J. (1995). ‘‘Square and rectangular hollow
sections under transverse end-bearing force.’’ J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE,
REFERENCES 121(9), 1323–1329.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). (1993). Load and re- NOTATION
sistance factor design specification for structural steel buildings, Chi-
cago. The following symbols are used in this paper:
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). (1996). Specification for the
design of cold-formed steel structural members, Washington, D.C. bf = overall width of flange;
BHP Structural and Pipeline Products. (1997). DuraGal design capacity Cp = correction factor in reliability analysis;
tables for structural steel angles, channels and flats, Sydney. COV = coefficient of variation;
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology on 10/02/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

BHP Structural and Pipeline Products. (1998). Pipe, tube, and structural DL = dead load;
products: mechanical test data, Somerton Plant, Australia. d = overall depth of web;
Hetrakul, N., and Yu, W. W. (1978). ‘‘Structural behavior of beam webs
subjected to web crippling and a combination of web crippling and
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity;
bending.’’ Final Rep., Civ. Engrg. Study 78-4, University of Missouri- e = correction factor for end loading condition;
Rolla, Rolla, Mo. Fm = mean value of fabrication variables;
Peköz, T. B., and Hall, W. B. (1988). ‘‘Probabilistic evaluation of test fy = yield stress;
results.’’ Proc., 9th Int. Specialty Conf. on Cold-Formed Steel Struct., h = depth of flat portion of web measured along plane of
University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Mo. web;
Rhodes, J., and Nash, D. (1998). ‘‘An investigation of web crushing be- i = correction factor for interior loading condition;
haviour in thin-walled beams.’’ Thin-Walled Struct., 32, 207–230. L = length of specimen;
Rogers, C. A., and Hancock, G. J. (1996). ‘‘Ductility of G550 sheet steels LL = live load;
in tension-elongation measurements and perforated tests.’’ Res. Rep.
R735, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., University of Sydney, Sydney.
Mm = mean value of material properties;
Standards Association of Australia (SAA). (1989). ‘‘SAA loading code. Mp = plastic moment per unit length;
Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combinations.’’ AS 1170.1-1989, N = length of bearing;
Sydney. Nm = assumed mechanism length;
Standards Association of Australia (SAA). (1991). ‘‘Methods for tensile PExp = experimental ultimate web crippling load per web;
testing of metals.’’ AS 1391, Sydney. Pm = mean value of design equations;
Standards Association of Australia (SAA). (1996). ‘‘Cold-formed steel Pn = nominal web crippling strength obtained from specifi-
structures.’’ AS/NZS 4600:1996, Sydney. cations (unfactored current design strength);
Standards Association of Australia (SAA). (1998). ‘‘Steel structures.’’ Ppm = proposed web crippling strength predicted by using plas-
AS 4100, Sydney.
Tsai, M. (1992). ‘‘Reliability models of load testing.’’ PhD thesis, Dept.
tic mechanism model;
of Aeronautical and Astronautical Engrg., University of Illinois at r = centerline corner radius of specimen;
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Ill. ri = inside corner radius of specimen;
Winter, G., and Pian, R. H. J. (1946). ‘‘Crushing strength of thin steel SD = standard deviation;
webs.’’ Cornell Bulletin 35, Part 1, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. t = thickness of channel section;
Young, B., and Hancock, G. J. (1998). ‘‘Web crippling behaviour of cold- VF = coefficient of variation of fabrication variables;
formed unlipped channels.’’ Proc., 14th Int. Specialty Conf. on Cold- VM = coefficient of variation of material properties;
Formed Steel Struct., University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Mo., 127– VP = coefficient of variation of design equations;
150. ␤ = safety index (reliability index);
Young, B., and Hancock, G. J. (1999). ‘‘Design of cold-formed unlipped
channels subjected to web crippling.’’ Res. Rep. R794, Dept. of Civ.
εu = elongation (tensile strain) after fracture based on gauge
Engrg., University of Sydney, Sydney. length of 50 mm;
Zetlin, L. (1955). ‘‘Elastic instability of flat plates subjected to partial ␴0.2 = static 0.2% tensile proof stress;
edge loads.’’ J. Struct. Div., ASCE, 81(795), 1–24. ␴u = static ultimate tensile strength; and
Zhao, X. L., and Hancock, G. J. (1992). ‘‘Square and rectangular hollow ␾ = resistance (capacity) factor.

1144 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / OCTOBER 2001

J. Struct. Eng., 2001, 127(10): 1137-1144