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Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109

Modern Building Materials, Structures and Techniques, MBMST 2016

Numerical investigation on web crippling behaviour of cold-formed

C-section beam with vertical stiffeners
Gintaras Šakalysa*, Alfonsas Daniūnasb
a, b
Department of Steel and Timber Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulėtekio al. 11, Vilnius LT-10223, Lithuania

Abstract

Present paper investigates an efficiency of application of vertical stiffeners in the web of cold-formed C-section beams under local
concentrated loading. The stiffeners would be cold-formed – an I-section cut is made on the web and the cut edges are folded into
the inner side of the profile. A lipped channel beam with a length of 1 m was selected to investigate the efficiency of vertical web
stiffeners. As a validation of rational stiffener parameters requires an extensive experimental program that is time-consuming and
prohibitively expensive, thus, the numerical modelling using finite element method (FEM) was adopted. The numerical modelling
was performed according to the standardized methodology of American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) covering four loading and
boundary conditions: 1) interior-one-flange (IOF); 2) interior-two-flange (ITF); 3) end-one-flange (EOF); and 4) end-two-flange
(ETF). The influence of stiffeners geometry on the ultimate stiffened web crippling strength was assessed using the data from the
numerical modelling of one hundred specimens. The obtained results were compared to the ultimate web crippling capacity of
unstiffened beams. The relationships of load-vertical web displacement and load-horizontal web displacement were derived. The
analysis of the obtained results formulated the directions for a further research.

©
© 2017
2016Published by Elsevier
The Authors. Ltd. This
Published is an open
by Elsevier access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Ltd.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
Keywords: Web crippling; Beams; Cold-formed steel; Finite element analysis; Stiffeners; Load-capacity.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, a developed manufacturing technology of cold-formed thin-walled profiles is a simple and less energy-
consuming process. Due to the rapid mass production, easy transportation, simple mounting, light weight and high

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +37067877221.

E-mail address: Gintaras.Sakalys@vgtu.lt

1877-7058 © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.171
 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109 1103

load-bearing capacity, the cold-formed thin-walled elements became widespread in the construction industry all over
the world. A wide selection from a variety of profiles enables them to be used as the load-bearing walls, floor and roof
structural elements. However, the buckling failure is characteristic for the cold-formed profiles, making the structural
application and the design of such elements a complicated task. The modification and calibration of the calculation
methods assessing the buckling effect require a comprehensive experimental and theoretical research.
A local failure of the web due to the concentrated loading, support reaction or the combination of the latter two is
one of the most frequent concerns in the design of thin-walled bending members. Previous investigations by Hetrakul
and Yu [1] revealed that the ultimate web crippling strength depends on the six key parameters: 1) the thickness of
the web t; 2) the tilt angle of the web θ; 3) the yield tensile strength fy; 4) the slenderness of the web h/t; 5) the ratio
between the bearing length and the thickness of the web n/t; and 6) the ratio between the inside bend radius and the
thickness of the web r/t. Over the past 40 years, a significant amount of the research has been performed to propose
the analytical methods for buckling calculations based on the relationships between the governing parameters and the
ultimate web crippling strength [2], [3]. Nowadays, the software based on the finite element method allows performing
a variety of experiments using virtual, though, accurate and precise models and validating the calculation techniques
[6]. The study performed by Macdonald et al. [9] revealed that the experimentally obtained and numerically calculated
results are quite similar. The latter observation allows using the numerical modelling as an accurate tool for the
investigation of deformation behaviour of the thin-walled C-section bending members.
In recent years, an extensive research has turned towards the development of C-section elements [7], [8]. The
enhanced shapes of the profiles are being created by incorporating the longitudinal stiffeners into the web of the cross-
section. However, a more efficient alternative for the reduction of web slenderness would be achieved applying the
vertical stiffeners, though there were no research investigating the application of vertical stiffeners.
The present study investigates the influence of geometry parameters of vertical stiffeners on the load-carrying
capacity of the web under the four different loading conditions, as described in Figure 2. The numerical modelling
was performed according to the standardized methodology of American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) [5]. A lipped
channel beam with a length of 1 m was selected to investigate the behaviour of the wall (Fig. 1a). The vertical stiffeners
were formed in a standard C-section bending element making an I-section cut on the web and folding the cut edges
into the inner side of the profile as shown in Figure 1b and c. All forms of the analysed stiffeners are presented in
Figure 3. In total, one hundred numerical modelling experiments were performed. The influence of stiffeners geometry
on the ultimate stiffened web crippling strength was obtained. The latter results were compared to the ultimate web
crippling capacity of unstiffened beams. The relationships of load-vertical web displacement and load-horizontal web
displacement were determined. The analysis of the obtained results sets the directions for a further research.

Nomenclature

EOF End-one-flange fu Ultimate tensile stress

IOF Interior-one-flange fy Tensile yield stress
ETF End-two-flange t Web thickness
ITF Interior-two-flange h Section height
PFEA Unstiffened web crippling ultimate capacity hs Stiffener height
obtained by using finite element analysis b Opening width
Ps,FEA Stiffened web crippling ultimate capacity d Stiffener width
obtained by using finite element analysis n Bearing length
E Elastic modulus r Inside bend radius
fy Tensile yield stress k friction coefficient

2. Finite element model description

A finite element modelling was performed using the software of ANSYS 16.0. All specimens were modelled
accounting for the symmetry condition, i.e. setting the plane of the symmetry along the paired C-section beams. Axes
Z, Y and X are the longitudinal, vertical and perpendicular to the plane of the web axes of the beam, respectively. A
1104 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109

designation of constraint degrees of freedom UX, UY, UZ and RX, RY, RZ indicates the constraint displacements and
rotations with respect to global coordinate axes X, Y, and Z, respectively.

Fig. 1. (a) C-section; (b) form of cut; (c) folding direction.

2.1. Finite element type, mesh size, and steel properties

All the beams were modelled using SHELL181 finite elements. It is a four-node, plane element with six degrees of
freedom at each node: displacements in the X, Y, and Z directions, and rotations about the X, Y, and Z axes [4].
SHELL181 is suitable for a large strain nonlinear analysis of thin shell structures. Support, load transferring, and tie
plates were modelled using volume finite elements.
The maximum size of the finite element was set to 3 mm around the stiffeners and at the contact zones. A mesh
size of the rest of the beam was 6×6 mm. The curves in the bending zone were divided into two parts.
The following material properties were used for the SHELL181 element: the steel grade S350GD; the yield tensile
strength fy = 350 N/mm2; the ultimate tensile strength fu = 420 N/mm2; the Young's modulus of elasticity E = 2.1×105
N/mm2; and the Poisson's ratio ν = 0.3. The same steel grade is used in the manufacturing of the real cold-formed
structural elements. The material behavior was defined by elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain curve. A residual
stresses arising during the formation process of the cross-section were neglected in the further analysis. The steel grade
S235 was adopted for modelling the support, load transferring, and tie plates assuming a linear elastic material
behavior.

2.2. Nonlinear analysis

An effect of large strains, nonlinear material behavior, nonlinear behavior of contact zones near the support and
load transferring plates were assessed determining the nonlinear failure behavior of the specimens subjected to the
external loading. As the analysis on the geometry parameters were performed at the theoretical level, the cross-
sectional geometric imperfections and loading eccentricities were neglected. A Newton-Raphson method was adopted
for the calculation of the equilibrium equations.

2.3. Loading

In order to determine the specimen behavior after the loss of load-carrying capacity, the acting load was modelled
as a 15 mm displacement. The displacement was set on the top of the load transferring plate towards the direction of
 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109 1105

Y axis making all other displacements of the surface constraint. The ultimate web crippling capacity was determined
from the relationship of displacement and support reactions.

2.4. ETF loading and boundary conditions (Fig. 2a)

At the end of the specimen, where the load was applied, the specimen was supported on the plates with a width
n = 60 mm and the thickness of 10 mm. A bottom surface of the support plate was fixed, i.e., all six degrees of freedom
were constraint. A top surface of the load transferring plate with the same dimensions as the support plate had the UX
and UZ displacements and RX, RY, RZ rotations constraint. Both plates were rigidly connected to the flanges of the
beam at the contact area of the circle having a diameter D = 24 mm. Such a contact simulated a washer having a center
point in the intersection of the axial lines of the beam flanges and plates. The remaining area between the plates and
the beam was described by a friction contact with the friction coefficient k = 0.2. Another end of the beam was
supported on the same-size plate with a rigid connection of its bottom surface. A contact area between the latter plate
and the beam was described by a friction coefficient k = 0.2. In order to prevent out of the plane displacement of the
unloaded end of the beam, the top flanges were bonded together using a plate with a low bending stiffness (cross-
sectional dimensions of 40×1 mm).

2.5. ITF loading and boundary conditions (Fig. 2b)

The specimen was supported on the centrally modelled support plate with a dimensions of 60×10 mm. A bottom
surface of the support plate was fixed, i.e., all six degrees of freedom were constraint. A load transferring plate was
modelled on the top flange at the same position symmetrical to the axis Z. The contacts between the plates and the
beam were the same. Both plates were rigidly connected to the flanges of the beam at the contact area of the circle
having a diameter D = 24 mm. The rest of the contact area was described by a friction contact with the friction
coefficient k = 0.2. The flanges of the beam were bonded with a slender tie plates having a cross-sectional dimensions
of 40×1 mm.

Fig. 2. Loading and boundary conditions (a) ETF; (b) ITF; (c) IOF; (d) EOF.
1106 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109

2.6. EOF and IOF loading and boundary conditions (Fig. 2c, d)

The specimen was supported on the ends of the modelled support plates with a dimensions of 60×10 mm. A bottom
surface of the plates had the UX and UY displacements and RY and RZ rotations constraint. In order to obtain a web
failure at the ends (EOF) of the beam, the out of the plane displacement of the web was constraint at the area along
the width of load transferring plate. As for the web failure at the load transferring zone (IOF), the out of the plane
displacement of the web was constraint at the ends of the beam along the width of support plates. A load transferring
plate having a dimensions of 60×10 mm was modelled at the center of the beam with a top surface constraint in the
directions UX and UZ. The contacts between the plates and the beam were the same. Both plates were rigidly
connected to the flanges of the beam at the contact area of the circle having a diameter D = 24 mm. The rest of the
contact area was described by a friction contact with the friction coefficient k = 0.2. The top flanges of the beam were
bonded with a slender tie plates having a cross-sectional dimensions of 40×1 mm.

3. Parametric study

In order to determine the efficiency of stiffeners, a parametric study consisting of numerical modelling results of
96 beams with stiffeners under four loading and boundary conditions as well as four specimens without stiffeners were

Fig. 3. (a) variety of stiffeners; (b) cross-section of stiffeners with b=20 mm; (c) cross-section of stiffeners with b=16 mm; (d)
cross-section of stiffeners with b=12 mm; (e) cross-section of stiffeners with b=8 mm.
 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109 1107

performed. All the numerical modelling experiments were conducted with a single type of C20010 beam by varying
the opening width of the stiffened zone (8 mm ≤ b ≤ 20 mm) and the height of the stiffener (60 mm ≤ h s ≤ 160 mm)
as shown in Figure 3. In total, 24 stiffeners with various geometry were modelled and tested under four different
loading and boundary conditions. A single stiffener was modelled at every zone expected to a failure for each of the
specimen. Depending on the loading conditions, the stiffeners were localized at the center of acting load or support
reaction. A central horizontal axis of the stiffeners coincided with the longitudinal axis of the specimens.

Table 1. Web crippling strength results.

Test b hs/h PFEA PS,FEA PS,FEA/PFEA Test b (mm) hs/h PFEA PS,FEA PS,FEA/PFEA
number (mm) (kN) (kN) number (kN) (kN)
ETF-1 20 0,3 2,70 2,72 1,009 ITF-1 20 0,3 6,45 6,26 0,971
ETF-2 20 0,4 2,70 2,87 1,065 ITF-2 20 0,4 6,45 6,11 0,946
ETF-3 20 0,5 2,70 3,15 1,169 ITF-3 20 0,5 6,45 5,95 0,923
ETF-4 20 0,6 2,70 3,59 1,332 ITF-4 20 0,6 6,45 5,82 0,902
ETF-5 20 0,7 2,70 4,20 1,557 ITF-5 20 0,7 6,45 5,77 0,894
ETF-6 20 0,8 2,70 4,95 1,835 ITF-6 20 0,8 6,45 6,01 0,931
ETF-7 16 0,3 2,70 2,73 1,013 ITF-7 16 0,3 6,45 6,29 0,975
ETF-8 16 0,4 2,70 2,83 1,051 ITF-8 16 0,4 6,45 6,14 0,951
ETF-9 16 0,5 2,70 3,12 1,156 ITF-9 16 0,5 6,45 5,99 0,928
ETF-10 16 0,6 2,70 3,54 1,314 ITF-10 16 0,6 6,45 5,86 0,908
ETF-11 16 0,7 2,70 4,14 1,534 ITF-11 16 0,7 6,45 5,80 0,899
ETF-12 16 0,8 2,70 4,95 1,834 ITF-12 16 0,8 6,45 6,02 0,934
ETF-13 12 0,3 2,70 2,75 1,021 ITF-13 12 0,3 6,45 6,31 0,978
ETF-14 12 0,4 2,70 2,87 1,066 ITF-14 12 0,4 6,45 6,17 0,957
ETF-15 12 0,5 2,70 3,14 1,163 ITF-15 12 0,5 6,45 6,02 0,934
ETF-16 12 0,6 2,70 3,53 1,309 ITF-16 12 0,6 6,45 5,89 0,913
ETF-17 12 0,7 2,70 4,11 1,523 ITF-17 12 0,7 6,45 5,81 0,900
ETF-18 12 0,8 2,70 4,89 1,812 ITF-18 12 0,8 6,45 6,01 0,932
ETF-19 8 0,3 2,70 2,76 1,025 ITF-19 8 0,3 6,45 6,40 0,992
ETF-20 8 0,4 2,70 2,88 1,069 ITF-20 8 0,4 6,45 6,25 0,969
ETF-21 8 0,5 2,70 3,08 1,143 ITF-21 8 0,5 6,45 5,82 0,902
ETF-22 8 0,6 2,70 3,36 1,247 ITF-22 8 0,6 6,45 5,33 0,825
ETF-23 8 0,7 2,70 3,76 1,392 ITF-23 8 0,7 6,45 4,95 0,768
ETF-24 8 0,8 2,70 4,10 1,519 ITF-24 8 0,8 6,45 4,98 0,773
IOF-1 20 0,3 6,92 6,93 1,001 EOF-1 20 0,3 3,38 3,43 1,014
IOF-2 20 0,4 6,92 6,93 1,001 EOF-2 20 0,4 3,38 3,52 1,040
IOF-3 20 0,5 6,92 6,92 1,000 EOF-3 20 0,5 3,38 3,67 1,084
IOF-4 20 0,6 6,92 6,90 0,996 EOF-4 20 0,6 3,38 3,84 1,137
IOF-5 20 0,7 6,92 6,53 0,943 EOF-5 20 0,7 3,38 4,07 1,204
IOF-6 20 0,8 6,92 6,39 0,924 EOF-6 20 0,8 3,38 4,41 1,305
IOF-7 16 0,3 6,92 6,93 1,001 EOF-7 16 0,3 3,38 3,45 1,022
IOF-8 16 0,4 6,92 6,92 1,001 EOF-8 16 0,4 3,38 3,55 1,052
IOF-9 16 0,5 6,92 6,92 0,999 EOF-9 16 0,5 3,38 3,71 1,097
IOF-10 16 0,6 6,92 6,84 0,988 EOF-10 16 0,6 3,38 3,89 1,152
IOF-11 16 0,7 6,92 6,57 0,949 EOF-11 16 0,7 3,38 4,18 1,237
IOF-12 16 0,8 6,92 6,48 0,936 EOF-12 16 0,8 3,38 4,58 1,355
IOF-13 12 0,3 6,92 6,93 1,001 EOF-13 12 0,3 3,38 3,48 1,030
IOF-14 12 0,4 6,92 6,92 1,000 EOF-14 12 0,4 3,38 3,59 1,062
IOF-15 12 0,5 6,92 6,90 0,998 EOF-15 12 0,5 3,38 3,75 1,108
IOF-16 12 0,6 6,92 6,83 0,988 EOF-16 12 0,6 3,38 3,94 1,164
IOF-17 12 0,7 6,92 6,60 0,954 EOF-17 12 0,7 3,38 4,23 1,252
IOF-18 12 0,8 6,92 6,56 0,947 EOF-18 12 0,8 3,38 4,66 1,378
IOF-19 8 0,3 6,92 6,92 1,000 EOF-19 8 0,3 3,38 3,63 1,073
IOF-20 8 0,4 6,92 6,92 1,000 EOF-20 8 0,4 3,38 3,76 1,111
IOF-21 8 0,5 6,92 6,90 0,998 EOF-21 8 0,5 3,38 3,94 1,167
IOF-22 8 0,6 6,92 6,86 0,992 EOF-22 8 0,6 3,38 4,20 1,242
IOF-23 8 0,7 6,92 6,61 0,955 EOF-23 8 0,7 3,38 4,54 1,343
IOF-24 8 0,8 6,92 6,50 0,939 EOF-24 8 0,8 3,38 4,61 1,364
1108 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109

4. Results, conclusions and future work

The influence of vertical stiffeners on the ultimate stiffened web crippling strength was analyzed using the data
from the numerical modelling of one hundred specimens. The obtained results are presented in Table 1 and Figure 4.
As can be observed in Figure 4, the application of stiffeners is not efficient under the loading and boundary conditions
of ITF and IOF, though the contrary results are evident under the loading and boundary conditions of ETF and EOF.
With the increasing height of the stiffeners, the highest efficiency is achieved under the ETF loading and boundary
condition. This is explained by the fact that under such a condition the unstiffened web of the beam buckles through
eits entire height at relatively low loading intensity. Under the EOF loading and boundary condition, the efficiency
also increases with the increasing height of the stiffener, though the increment is not so high. This is due to the fact

Fig. 4. Web crippling ultimate capacity dependence of stiffeners geometric parameters.

Fig. 5. Stress distribution in deformed specimen (a) ETF-22; (b) EOF-24; (c) ITF-23; (d) IOF-8.
 Gintaras Šakalys and Alfonsas Daniūnas / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1102 – 1109 1109

that the buckling of the unstiffened web takes place not over its entire height but at the bottom part only.
Once the critical slenderness of the stiffener is reached, the width d of the stiffener has no influence on the load
carrying capacity of the web and web failure occurs not over the height of the stiffener. However, having a small
width d of the stiffener, it becomes too slender to resist buckling and the failure occurs in the stiffener itself (Fig. 5a,
b, and c.). The latter effect is observed in the specimens ETF-22, ETF-23, ETF-24, ITF-22, ITF-23, ITF-24, and EOF-
24.
Due to the right angles at the ends of the stiffener, a pronounced stress concentration was observed (Fig. 5). Before
the loss of load-capacity of the web, a plastic deformations were formed in these zones. The analysis of stress
distribution under the ITF loading and boundary conditions revealed that an area of high stresses is formed in the
middle of the stiffener at the longitudinal axis of the beam. Following to the observed stress distribution it can be
concluded that during the formation of the buckling wave along the Z axis the opening of the stiffener facilitates the
out of plane deformation. This explains the ineffectiveness of the stiffeners under the ITF loading and boundary
conditions. The same tendency is observed under the IOF loading and boundary conditions at the high height of
stiffeners.
In the following studies, the critical slenderness of stiffeners will be determined corresponding to the failure of the
web without buckling of the stiffener. An apparent efficiency of the use of stiffeners under the EOF and ETF loading
and boundary conditions requires offering a calculation methodology for the practical applications. A further research
will contribute to the investigation of smoother forms of the stiffeners preventing stress concentrations. It will also
cover the efficiency analysis of vertical stiffeners made without an openings.

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