ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

TABLE OF CONTENT:
1. Introduction
a. Organization
b. Organization behaviour
2. Definitions of Organization behaviour
3. Fundamental Concept in Organization Behaviour
4. Behaviour Model for Organisational Efficiency
5. Approaches of Organizational Behaviour
6. Models of Organisational Behaviour
7. Personality
8. Characteristics feature of personality
9. Dimension of personality
10. Determinants of Personality
11. Big 5 models of Personality
12. Concept of Reinforcement
13. Perception
14. Process of Perception
15. Factors influencing perception
16. Barriers to accurate perception or perpetual errors

17. Attribution Theory

18. Managerial uses of Perception

Organization:

• An organisation is a group of people working together to achieve t he

common organisational goal (viz., production of goods or service) with the
help of people, machines and materials.
• Examples of an organisation are family, university, bank, Municipal
Corporation, government, army, etc.
Organization Behaviour:

• Organisational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about

how people act within organisations

• It is a human tool for human benefits

• It applies to the behaviour of people at work in all types of organizations:
public, private, cooperative sector, commercial or service organisations.
• Whatever organisations are, there is a need to understand organisational
behaviour.
• The study of Organisational Behaviour involves understanding, prediction
and control of human behaviour and the factors which influence the
performance of people in an organisation.
• It is concerned with the behaviour of individuals and groups not the
behaviour of all members collectively

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR:

1. Stephen P. Robbins: Organisation Behaviour is a field of study that investigates

the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within
organisations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an
organisation's effectiveness.

2. Moorhead/Griffin: Organisation behaviour is the study of human behaviour in

organisational settings that interface between human behaviour and the
organisation and the organisation itself.

3. Ramon J Aldag and Arthur P Brief: Organisation behaviour is a branch of the

social science that seek to build theories that can be applied to predicting,
understanding and controlling behaviour in work organisations.

Fundamental Concepts in Organisational Behaviour:

1. Every individual is different: Every person is unique. Therefore, each person
should be treated separately while managing people. A uniform management style
will not be applicable to all employees.

2. Every individual is a complete person: Each individual has his/her own likes-
dislikes, opinions, views, attitude, knowledge, etc. Since the employee spends more
time in the organisations they work, they are expected to be happy on-the -job as
well as off-the-job.

3. Human behaviour has cause-effect relationship: It is necessary for managers to

understand the beliefs and faiths of t he people and also the cause-effect
relationship behind the behaviour, if they want to be effective managers.

4. Every individual has self-esteem: People are different from machines and
materials. They have self-respect and prestige. They expect their due respect in
day-to- day activities.

5. An organisation is a social system: The organisational behaviour of people

depends upon their social status, social roles and social groups. As a result, within
every formal organisation, there exists an informal organisation, which influences
t he formal organisation to a large extent.

6. Mutual interests are inter-dependent: As organisation needs people, people too

need the organisation to achieve their respective goals. There is interdependence
of interests. It is necessary that these are 'complementary' and not 'contradictory'.

7. A total view of organisation: When all the above aspects of organisational

behaviour are taken in to consideration we can have a total view of t he
organisation. This helps the managers understand human behaviour in t he
organisation, which results in the necessary co-ordination between organisation,
management and employees.

Behaviour Model for Organisational Efficiency:

• Organisational behaviour is a study and application of managerial skills and
 knowledge t o people in the organisation t o investigate individual and group
behaviour.
• Various concepts and models in the field of organisational behaviour
attempt to identify, not only the human behaviour but also modify their
attitude and promot e skills so that they can act more effect
• Leader must be able t o describe, understand, predict and control individual
behaviour in the organisation.

Describe:
• Study of organisational behaviour is based on scientific methods, which
have been applied on human beings.
• It is a science, t hat analyses as to lhow people behave in different situations
in the organisation.

• A manager should be able describe the behaviour of each of t he individuals

under his command, identify attitude, and be able to pinpoint his behaviour
so that the situation in the organisation is under control.

Understand:
• Leaders must underst and human behaviour as to why people behave in
particular manner and try to ident ify reasons so that corrective actions can
be taken.

Predict:
• By frequent closer interaction, a leader is in a position to identify the nature
of workers.
• Some are more productive while the others are tardy and disruptive.
• In such situation, a leader should be able t o handle each individual
differently so that his or her actions can be channelised to higher
productivity.

Control:
• M anagers in the organisations should train their subordinates continuously;
aim being development of skills, promot ion of productivity and
improvement of individual behaviour.
 • It is a continuous process on the part of manager. He must lay down control
measures so that the energy of workers is diverted towards organisational
objectives.
• Communication should be used to ensure that the behaviour of individual is
controlled.
• Environment has a great impact on human behaviour.

Approaches of Organizational Behaviour:

Following are the important approaches of organisational behaviour

l. The Inter-Disciplinary Approach

• This approach states that in order to study the organisational behaviour, it is
necessary to understand the interactions and interdependence between the
various aspects of human life.

2. The Human Resources Approach

• This approach states that the management of an organisation should
support training and development of employees, since it yields better
results.
• This leads to employee and organisation growth.

3. The Systems Approach:

• This approach looks upon the management as a 'System' with various sub-
systems.
• The attention should be given to overall effectiveness of the system rather
than effectiveness of any sub-system in isolation.

4. The Contingency Approach:

• This approach states that each situation should be dealt uniquely, with
special thinking and decision making.
• The various approaches to the study of organisational behaviour have given
rise to different models.
Models of Organisational Behaviour

The autocratic model

• This model assumes that authority of superiors and obedience is central to
results.
• Obedience of subordinates is due to two reasons: respect for knowledge
and fear of punishment in case of disobedience.

The custodian model:

• This model assumes that organisational behaviour depends upon economic
resources. Employees work for money and job security.
• The management takes the role of guardian and custodian of their
employees and their wealth.

The supportive model

• This model assumes that management plays role of supportive leadership.
• Employees show an initiative and drive for performance through their
involvement and participation in the organisational activities.
• Employees need support, status and recognition for their performance.

The collegial model

• The model is based on the assumption that the main need of employees is
self-actualisation and they exhibit responsible behaviour.
• The management must build teams and encourage participation in decision
making.

The SOBC model

• It is based on the philosophy that 'human behaviour is caused and follows
the cause-effect relationship'.
• SOBC stands for Stimulus, Organism, Behaviour, Consequence
PERSONALITY:

• The term " personality" is derived from the Latin word ' persona', which
 means "Mask".
• According to Gordon W. Allport, Personality is the dynamic organization
within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
unique adjustments to his environment.
• It can be defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to
and interacts with others.

Olaracteristics Features of Personality:

1. Psychophysical systems:
• Personality is a system that has both psychological and physical aspects.
• This system is composed of interacting elements and the main elements of
the system are traits, emotions, intellect, temperament, character and
motives.
• All these elements are psychologi:cal but they are based in the neurology
and endocrinology of the body.

2. Dynamic organisation:
• It signifies that different elements of psychological system are independent
but function in an interlocking manner and are subject to change.
• However this change can take place over a period of time in a gradual
manner.

3. Consistency:
• Since personality is a stable organisation it also has the element of
consistency.
• By consistency we mean that an individual behaves in the same way in
different situations and behavioural consistency is found when same
situation is repeated across time.
• Psychologists give four types of consistency.

A. Type "AN consistency:

• In this type the situation and behaviour remain same.
 B. Type "B" consistency:
• When the same behavio'Ur is repeated in two different situations.

C. Type Hr:' consistency: When an individual is asked to behave different ly

in the same situation.

D. Type "D" consistency:

• When a person behaves differently in different situations.
• A person is able to behave in different situations according to the
demand of the situation because he is influenced by particular
type of traits.

4. Unique adjustment to environment:

• Every person is characterised with a dynamic organisation of psychological
traits that makes his adjustment.
• The reason for this is that experiences of every person are unique therefore
their reaction to the environment is also unique.

5. Development of personality structure:

• Personality development is the natural quality of a growing organism.
• The path is from simple to increasingly complex factors and situations an
individual has to pass by.
• According to Heniz Werner, at birth the mental organisation of the infant
expands slowly. Through interactions with the environment, the parts of
the child's mental structure become progressively crystallised and
differentiated from each other.
• The analytical stage is followed by synthesis or integration when t he
differentiated parts become functionally organised.
• From a diffused mass through progressive differentiation to an integrated
whole is, then the course of development of personality structure.

6. Consciousnesa:
• Personality is conscious in that it develops out of our interaction with t he
 environment.
• This interaction results in formation of concept of self.
• Self-concept means who we are and what we stand for.
• All the responses of a human being are oriented toward protection of the
self concept.

7. Potentiality for change:

• Potential for change is another char acteristic of personality.
• The earlier psychoanalytical view did hold personality as a rigid structure.
• However, modern humanistic theories have demonstrated not only the
human has t he capacity for reorganisation but also the conditions do foster
change.
• Integration or organisation is the quality of the human personality that is it
occurs to human beings naturally and normally.

Dimensions of Personality:

1. Traits
• Traits are relatively permanent characteristics of personality which compel
an individual to behave consistently across different situations
• People can be compared by measuring these traits.
• Some of t he important traits are (a) lntroversion-extraversion; (b)
Neuroticism-stability (c) Psychoticism

a) Introversion-extroversion
• It is a bipolar t rait.
• People with predominance of int roversion are self-centered.
• Such people are idealistic, imaginative, shy and seduded. Predominance
of thoughtfulness steers them in the w orld of brooding, fantasy and
daydreaming.
• These people take considerable time in reaching decision and are
worried about the fut ure.
• Such people are theoretical and often are philosophers, poets, scientist
 and professors.
• Extroverts are more inclined to social activities. They are gregarious and
social by nature.
• Such people are realistic, pract ical, talkative, and active.
• They show more interest in leadership.
• However, very few people are completely extrovert or introvert.
• Majority of the people fall in between that is, they exhibit some degree
of introversion and some degree of extroversion in their behaviour and
hence are called Ambiverts.

b) Neuroticism stability dimension

• This too is a bipolar dimension.
• People high on neuroticism exhibit particular traits and behavioural
t endencies.
• They show lack of emotional control and will power with an added
characteristic of slowness in t hought process and activity.
• Even small things perturb t hem. People with high neuroticism are high on
suggest ibility and low on sociability.
• However, such people are also characterised by increased emotional
impulsiveness.
• Contrary to neuroticism, people high on stability are cool and do not get
easily dist urbed or perturbed by conflicting issues.
• They are able to keep themselves under control even in most difficult
circumstances.
• They can detach t hemselves and think over t he problem in a balanced
manner so as t o arrive at a right decision. This quality of them makes them
realistic and problem solution oriented

c) Psychoticism dimension
• People with this trait show lack of concentration power and weak memory.
• They are also characterised with insensitivity.
• They are more worried for themselves than for ot hers.
• Element of cruelty and sensation seeking marks their behaviour and they
are unable to protect themselves from danger and dangerous situations.
2. Motivation:
• Psychologists widely believe that for a person to engage in some particular
behaviour the presence of motivation is a must.
• This dimension of personality includes all those motivational activities which
while directing a person towards tlhe target, give rise to specific patterns of
behaviour.

3. Temperament
• Temperament is the third main dimension of personality.
• It refers to the sum total of the emotional and affective tendencies of the
person. Sensitivity, irritability, nervousness, pleasantness are some of the
adjective used to describe temperament.
• Temperament is believed to be the innate quality of person that means it is
present at the time of birth.

4. Character
• By character we mean moral excellences.
• As a dimension of personality character signifies the morality or immorality
in the person.
• It is the learned aspect of personality and is acquired through process of
socialisation.
• It is also known as conscience.
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Biological Factors:

The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three
heads:

1. Heredity

• Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.

• Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle
composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are
characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one's parents.

2. Brain

• The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain
plays in personality.

• The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the

human brain in influencing personality.

3. Biofeedback

• Until recently, physiologists and [Psychologists felt that certain biological

functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and
 fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious
control.

• Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be

consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, t he
individual learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through
electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to t he
body.

4. Physical Features
• A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual's external appearance, is
biologically determined.
• The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will
influence the person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-
concept.

Cultural Factors:
• Culture is the underlying determina nt of human decision making.
• It generally determines attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, and cooperation.
• Each culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are
acceptable to t he group.

Situational Factors
• Apart from the biological, sociological, and cultural factors, situational
factors also determine personality development.
• The S-0-8-C model of human behaviour considers the situations under
which the behaviour is occurring.
• Milgram's research study suggests that very powerful role t he situation may
play in human personality.
• On the basis of his research study, he states that a situation exerts an
important pressure on the individual. It exercises constraints or provide
 push.

Family and social factors:

• When an individual interact with other persons in his/her group give and
take relationship takes place and it affects the personality of an individual
• Social factors of personality are responsible for the formation of personality,
when an individual has group experience and contact with others
• Personality of an individual is influenced by others may be bad or good but
depends on the association in which he/she keeps.
• In a society every person plays a specific role and status.

The Big Five Model of Personality:

• The Big Five Model, also known as the Five~Factor Model, is the most widely
accepted personality theory held by psychologists today.

• The theory states that personality can be boiled down to five core factors,
known by the acronym OCEAN
• The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits.

1. Openness
• This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight.
• People who are high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of
interests.
• They are curious about the world and other people and eager to learn new
things and enjoy new experiences.
• People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative.
• People low in this trait are often much more traditional and may struggle
with abstract thinking.

2. Conscientiousness
• Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness,
good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviours.
• Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details.
 • Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details.
• They plan ahead, think about how their behaviour affects others, and are
mindful of deadlines.

3. Extravenion
• Extraversion (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability,
talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.
• People who are high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in
social situations. Being around other people helps them feel energized and
excited.
• People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more
reserved and have less energy to expend in social settings. Social events can
feel draining and introverts often require a period of solitude and quiet in
order to "recharge."

4. Agreeableness
• This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism,
kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviours.
• People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while
those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even
manipulative.

5. Neuroticism
• Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional
instability.
• Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings,
anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more
stable and emotionally resilient.
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Concept of Reinforcement:

• Reinforcement is a term used in the context of behavioural analysis and in a

specific kind of intentional behaviour change known as operant
conditioning.
• It is a process of increasing the incidence of a measurable behaviour.

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation:

 • Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his
associates.
• It states that individual's behaviour is a function of its consequences.

• It is based on '1aw of effect", i.e, individual's behaviour with positive

consequences tends to be repeated, but individual's behaviour with
negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
• Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of
individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by
Skinner.
• This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes
some action.
• Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization
must be designed effectively and positive.Iv so as to motivate the employee.
• This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for
individual's behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of
individual's behaviour.
• The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of
the employees:

1. Positive Reinforcement-
• This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive
and required behaviour.
• For example - Immediately praising an employee for coming early for job.
• This will increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again.
Reward is a positive reinforce, but not necessarily.
• Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behaviour.
• It must be noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater
reinforcement value it has.

2. Negative Reinforcement-
• This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative/undesirable
consequences.
• Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing
 desirable / required behaviour.

Punishment-
• It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of
repeating undesirable behaviour in future.
• Punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing
undesirable behaviour.
• For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules.
Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from alternative
source.

Extinction-
• It implies absence of reinforcements.
• Extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by
removing reward for that kind of behaviour.
• For instance - if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for
his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is gene.rating no fruitful
consequence.
• Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour.

PERCEPTION:

• Individuals are exposed to varieties of stimuli of the environment.

• They process these stimuli and interpret them. The process of receiving
information and making sense is known as perception.
• It refers to the way the world sounds, looks, feels, smells, tastes to the
individual.
• The individual's behaviour is determined to a large extent by the way the
environment is perceived by him/her.

Various definitions of Perception:

 • According to Joseph Reitz; "Perception indudes all those processes by
which an individual receives information about his environment-seeing,
hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling."

• According to B. V. H. Gilmer, "Perception is t he process of becoming aware

of situations, of adding meaningful associations to sensations."

• Uday Pareek said perception can be defined as "the process of receiving,

selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimuli
or data."

• According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as "the process by

which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order
to give meaning to their environments."

Perception includes the 5 senses; touch, sight, taste smell and sound. It also
includes what is known as perception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect
changes in body positions and movements.

PROCESS OF PERCEPTION:

• The model of process of perception describes four stages.

• The model can be understood through input-throughput-output approach.

Stage 1:
• It describes perceptual inputs.
• Perceptual inputs encompass all stimuli that exist in our environment
including information, objects, events, people etc.
• The perceiver receives these inputs.

Stage 2:
• It describes perceptual mechanisms or throughputs.
• This is the transformation of perceptual inputs to outputs.
 • It involves the three processes of selecting, organising, and interpreting the
stimuli that are in t he environment.
• Though all individuals go through the same three steps, while transforming
the perceptual inputs to outputs, they differ in how do they select, organise
and interpret stimuli based on their own personality predispositions and
biases.

Stage 3:
• Perceptual outputs are derived through the processing of perceptual
throughputs.
• These include one's attitudes, opinions, feelings, values, and actions.
Perceptual errors may adversely affect the outputs.
• Hence, managers should enhance their perceptual skills.

Stage 4:
• Behaviour is a resultant factor.
• The perceiver's behaviour, in turn, generates responses and these reactions
give rise to a new set of inputs.

Factors influencing Perception:

• Perception is influenced by mainly three sets of factors:

• Factors in the perceiver (perceiver variables)
• Factors in the target (subject characteristics)
• Factors in the situation (situational variables).
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• Expectations

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BARRIERS TO ACCURATE PERCEPTION OR PERPETUAL ERRORS

Stereotyping:

• It is judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which

that person belongs.
• Though such generalisations help to simplify complex world, its overuse
mostly leads to wrong conclusion.

Halo Effect:
• This perceptual bias means, drawing a general impression about an
individual on the basis of single characteristics.

Similar-to-me Effect or Projection:

• It is another common type of percept ual bias, which involves the tendency
for people to perceive more favourably others who are like themselves than
 t hose who are dissimilar.

Selective Perceptions:
• It explains that people selectively interpret what they see on the basis of
their interests, background, experience and attitudes.

Distortion:
• It is distorting what we see (or even totally avoid seeing what actually exists)
if we encounter data, which is threatening or incongruent to our self-
concept.

Contrast Effects:
• It is evaluations of a person's characteristics that are affected by
comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or
lower on the same characteristics.

Projection
• Projection is the tendency for people t o see their own trait on other people.
• A classical projection error is illustrated by managers who assume that the
needs of their subordinates and their own coincide.

Setf-Serving Bias:
• The tendency of individuals to attribute their own successes to internal
factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

Recency Effect:
• When the most recent information influences our judgement, even though
we have a whole of other information on the person.

THEORY OF ATTRIBUTION
• Attribution is an important concept for understanding perception, as it is
related to judging the causes of others' behaviour.
• An inaccurate attribution may lead to inaccurate perception.
 • Attribution theory tries to explain the ways in which we judge people
differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behaviour.
• It suggests that when we observe an individual's behaviour, we attempt to
determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
• That determination, how-ever, depends largely on three factors: (1)
distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency.

Differences between internal and external causation

• Internally caused behaviours are those we believe to be under the personal
control of the individual.
• Externally caused behaviour is what we imagine the situation forced the
individual to do.

1. Distinctiveness
• It is extent to which a person behaves in the same manner in other contexts.
• If one behaves the same way in other situations, distinctiveness is low; if
one behaves differently, distinctiveness is high.
• If a particular behaviour is unusual, an observer is likely to give the
behaviour an external attribution.
• If the action is not unusual, it will be perhaps judged as internal.

2. Consensus
• It is the extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the
person we are judging.
• If others do behave similarly, consensus is considered, high; if they do not,
consensus is considered low.
• If consensus were high, you would be expected to give external attribution,
and if consensus is low, you tend to give internal attribution.

Consistency
• It is tendency to respond the same way over time. Consistency also may be
high or low.
• The more consistent the behaviour, the more the observer is inclined to
attribute it to internal causes and vice-versa.
Managerial Applications of Perceptions:

1. Employment Interview
2. Performance Review
3. Performance Expectations
4. Employee Loyalty

Questions that can be asked in from above topics are:

1. Explain the basic approaches to study organization behaviour?

2. Explain the Behaviour Model for Organisational Efficiency.
3. What is Personality? Discuss the features of Personality
4. Discuss the role of various factors ijn the formation of personality.
5. Explain the process of perception. Discuss the various factors that influence
perception.
6. What are the barriers to accurate perception?
7. Write a short note on Theory of Attribution