Module-4

Multiplexing
 It is the transmission of information from more than one source to
one destination over same transmission medium like metallic
wire, Coaxial cable etc.
 The entire process can be done using a device namely Mux of
multiplexer.
 The main function of this device is to unite n input lines for
generating a single output line.

Types of multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 FDM is a technique of separating the Signals in frequency
domain.
 Narrow bandwidth channels ace combined and transmitted over a
single bit bandwidth transmission system without interfacing each
Other.
 Narrow bandwidth segment caries different information.

 FDM is an analog multiplexing scheme to avoid interference

between two successive channels Guard bands are used.
 Eg: TV broadcasting.

Advantages

 Transmits multiple signal simultaneously.

 FDM demodulation is easy.
 Does not require Synchronization between transmitter and
receiver.

Disadvantage
 Larger bandwidth
Application
 FM, AM broad Casting.

Different Switching Error control methods

 1. Forward Error Correction

2. Automatic Repeat Request

Forward Error Correction

Depend upon coding to allow error correction

Limitations

 Errors are numerous

 Large number of redundant bits should be added to achieve low
error late.
 Processing require Complex and expensive hardware.

Automatic Repeat Request (ARO)

 ARQ is used when extremely low error lates are required.

 In this system, receiver is not called upon to correct but only to
detect errors.
 When an error is detected in a word, receiver sends Signal back to
Transmitter and the code is transmitted again
 In an ARQ System a feedback channel must be provided.

Basic ARQ Systems

1. Stop and wait ARQ
2. Go-back N ARQ
3. Selective Repeat ARQ
Stop and wait ARQ

 In this method the transmitted and receive work on delivering

One flame at a time through an alternation of actions.
 FO process was successful. F1 is sent. There is an error So B
sends no ACK. After Time out, A sends F1.
 This time ASK is received so A Sends F2.
 Here B receives error free F4, but its ACK is lost in transmission.
After timeout, A sends F4, B recognizes it has received a double,
deletes one and resends the ACK for F4.

Go-back N ARQ

 Here, the transmitter Continues sending frames unlike stopping

and waiting for the Ack to arrive and then proceed.
 Thus, the transmission line is kept busy and more data is
transferred if line remains reliable.
 Called a sliding window protocol as with each arriving erros
free frame the receive window slides forward.
 A sends F0. Without waiting for an Ack, it sends F1 and then
F2. F2 encounters an error. B sends no Ack and then continues
late ignore frames.
 When the number of outstanding frame Crosses N (here N=3)
the sender is forced to go back N' frames. Thus, here it will
transmit frames from F2 onwards.

SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ

 Unlike Go-Back-N, here a NAK is sent by the receiver

if sees a Skipped frame due to error. Subsequent frames
are not ignored and the sender selectively repeats
transmission of only the frame that encountered error.
 A Sends F0. Without waiting for an Ack, it sends F1 and
then F2. F₂ encounters an error. B sends a NAK for F2
when it receives F3. F3 is saved at B.
 B continues to receive Subsequent frames but it sends
an ACK for 2 until F₂ arrives. It then Sends an ACK for
the next frame. Here, it is for F6.

Advantages of ARQ
 Provides a high throughput in good signal Conditions.
 Asking the Sender to send packets again instead of
correcting them results in high data reliability.

Disadvantages of ARQ

 Require a reverse channel for transmission of ACKS/

NAKS.
 Poor signal conditions result in low transfer speeds as
errors will cause delay variations due to retransmitted
data.

Cipher

 It is an algorithm for encrypting and data.

 A cipher uses a system of fixed rules.
 An algorithm is used to transform plain text into Cipher
text.
 Modern cipher implementation depends upon cipher
algorithm and secret key (private key).

Transformations in cipher

 Transposition Cipher: keeps all original bit of data in a

byte but mix their order.
 Substitution Cipher: Replaces specific data Sequence
with other data.
 Data Output by either method is Called Cipher tent.

Time Division multiplexing (TDM)

  TDM is a digital multiplexing technique in which
multiple signals are combined and transmitted one after
another on same channel.
 Signal are operating at same frequency and transmitted at
different time.

Synchronous TDM

 In Synchronous TDM, multiplexer assigns similar Slot for

each device at every time.
 A Clock signal is assigned at both ends of transmitted and
receiver.

Asynchronous TDM

 Rate of Sampling is different.

 Clock signal is not required.

Advantages

 Full bandwidth can be utilized at a Part time.

 More flexible than FDM.
 Cross talk is less.

Disadvantages

 Synchronization

Applications

Communication Systems, satellite, GSM Synchronous and

Asynchronous data Transmission

Asynchronous Transmission

 It flows in half duplex mode, One byte or character at a time.

 It transmits data in a continuous Stream of byte.
 BLOCK DAIGRAM OF CIPHER

PLAIN TEXT ENCRYPTION CIPHER TEXT DECRYPTION PLAIN TEXT

Uses
 Secure online communication
E.g.: WIFI, https
Public key algorithm.
 The process of encryption and decryption is depicted in the
following illustration.

 Different keys are used for encryption and decryption.

This is property which set this scheme different than
symmetric encryption scheme.
 Each receiver possesses a unique decryption key,
generally referred to as his private key.

 Receiver needs to publish an encryption key, referred to

as his public key.

 Some assurance of the authenticity of a Public key is

needed in this scheme to avoid Spoofing by adversary as
the receiver. Generally, this type of crypto system
involves trusted third party which certifies that a particular
public key belongs to a specific person of entity only.

 Encryption algorithm is complex enough to Prohibit

attacker from deducing the plain text from the ciphertext
and the encryption (Public key).

RSA Algorithm

 It is a public key algorithm

 Algorithm was publicly described by Ron Rivest, Ad Shamie
Leonard Adleman and so "RSA" was formed from the initials of
their Surnames.
 RSA public keys all recommended to be at least 1024 byte long
to provide adequate security.
 It can be used to perform both signing and encryption.

RSA Algorithm Steps

 Step 1: Choose too different large random prime numbers.

 Step2: Calculate n=p*q
 Step 3: Calculate θ (x) = (P-1)* (Q-1)
 Step 4: Choose an integer e (public key), 1<e< θ(x).
 Steps5: Calculate d (private key) = I+ [K* θ (x)] /e.
 Step 6: Encryption, C= me * mod n (where m is message signal)
 Step 7: Decryption, m=ed * mod n
Digital Signature
Digital signature is a type of electronic Signature that encrypts
documents with digital code that are particularly difficult to
duplicate.

The coded message or finger print is unique to both the document

and the Signs and binds them together.

It is used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a message,

software or digital document. Digital Signatures
cryptographically bind an electronic identity to an electronic
document and the signature Cannot be copied to another
document.

Attributes of digital signature

1. Authentication
Digital Signature is used to authenticate the source of
message. It ensures the uses of the Sender.

2. Integrity

Integrity ensures that when a message is sent over a network, the

data that arrives is the same as the data that was Originally sent.
Digital Signature ensures the integrity of message.

3.Non-repudiation
This is an important criterion of digital Signature. As digital
Signature ensures the authentication of the message, So the
Sender Can't repudiate it later. At the same time, it also ensures
the identity of the receiver, So the receiver can't repudiate it later.