Lecture 3

Protocol Functions
&
Network Addressing

2.1
 Functions of Protocol
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Encapsulation

 Connection control

 Multiplexing

 Transmission services

 Addressing
Segmentation ( Fragmentation in TCP/IP)
Break the data stream (message) generated by the
application layer into smaller blocks of bounded size
(packets ) at lower layers.
For ATM blocks called cells of 53 octets (byte) long
For Ethernet called frames up to 1526 octets long.
Message
Segment, User
Datagram, or Packet
Datagram /packet
Frame

Bit
 Reassembly
The counterpart of Segmentation that resemble the small
packets at appropriate level to the original message
Advantages of Segmentation Disadvantages
- More efficient error control
- Overheads
- Shorter delays
- Smaller buffers needed - More processing time
Message
Segment, User
Datagram, or Packet
Datagram /packet
Frame

Bit
 Encapsulation
Mean Addition of control information to data such as:
- Address:
the address of sender and receiver
- Error-detecting code:
Frame check sequence for error detection
- Connection Control information:
information about protocol function
 Connection Control Methods
Connectionless Connection-oriented
Each packet carries the
full destination address
Connection
and routed through Establishment
the network system
independently
Data
So, the second packet Transfer
may arrive before the
first one.
terminate
the connection
By any side
 Connection Control Information
- The key characteristics of Connection control is the
Sequencing.
- Sequencing is used to number the outgoing and
incoming packets.
- Sequencing support 3 main functions:
1. Ordered delivery (connectionless (packet switching))
2. Flow control
3. Error control

1- Ordered Delivery
Packets traverse different paths during their
transmission. Thus, They may arrive out of order.
So, each packets given a unique Sequential number to
allow the receiver to re-order the received packets.
 2- Flow Control
Function performed by a receiving entity to limit the amount
of data that is sent by a transmitting entity.
-The simplest form of flow control:
Stop and wait: each PDU must be acknowledged before the
next can be sent.

2- Error Control
• Guard against loss/damage (Executed at various levels)
• Simple Error detection procedures
1-Sender inserts error detecting bits
2-Receiver checks these bits
3- If OK, acknowledge , If error, discard packet
4- If no acknowledge in given time, re-transmit
 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing combining several lower speed circuits
(Connections) into a higher speed one.
 The advantage of multiplexing is cheaper cost since
fewer network circuits are needed.
 Inverse Multiplexing
 Inverse Multiplexing works in the opposite way, and
breaks up a higher speed circuit into two or more lower
speed ones.
 Categories of multiplexing
 There are four categories :
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
 Time division multiplexing (TDM)
 Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM)
 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 FDM works by forming a number of smaller channels from a
larger frequency band. (known as horizontal Freq)
 Unused frequency bands called Guardbands are to separate the
channels. to prevent interference
 The use of Guardbands, cause wasted capacity on FDM.
 FDM was also commonly used to multiplex telephone signals
before digital transmission
 FDM became common and is still used on some older
transmission lines.

frequency

f3 S3

Guardbands S2
f2

f1 S1
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 TDM allows multiple channels to be used by allowing
the channels to send data by taking turns.
 TDM is . (known as vertical Frequency)
 With TDM, time on the circuit is shared equally with
each channel getting a specified time slot, whether or
not it has any data to send.
 TDM is more efficient than FDM, since TDM doesn’t
use guard bands, so the entire capacity can be divided
up between the data channels.

S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3
time
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
 STDM uses time slots as regular TDM, but the time slots
are not fixed. Instead, they are used as needed by the
different terminals on the multiplexed circuit.
 Since the source of a data sample is not identified by the
time slot it occupies, additional addressing information
must be added to each sample.
 If all terminals are contest to use the multiplexed circuit,
response time delays can occur.
 The multiplexer also needs to contain memory to store
data in case more data samples come in than its outgoing
circuit capacity can handle.

time
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 With WDM data is transmitted at several different
frequencies over the same optical fiber, typical
transmitted at 622 Mbps.
 A new version of WDM, Dense WDM (DWDM) permits
up to 40 circuits (Connections).
 With DWDM each Connections (circuits) can transmit
at a rate of 10 Gbps
 This mean single fiber can aggregate data rates of 400
Gbps possible.
 Recently, a new version of DWDM has been announced
capable of carrying 128 circuits at 10 Gbps, or an
aggregate transmission rates of 1.28 Terabits per second.
 Address Concepts
Addressing has 3 basic Concepts
1- Addressing mode
2- Connection identifiers (name)
3- Addressing level

1- Addressing Mode
• Unicast address: Sent to one machine or person
• Broadcast: Sent to all machines or users
• Multicast: Sent to some machines or a group of
users
2- Connection
identifiers
connection identifiers

 The connection identifiers is a name allocated to the connection

oriented during the connection phase (circuit switching)
The advantage of connection identifiers are:
- Reduce overhead used for connection-oriented
- Shorter than global addresses (used for packet switching)
- Multiplexing : Entities may use more than one
connections identifiers.
 3-Addressing Levels
Four levels of addresses are shown in figure
 Port Address
• There are many application running on the computer.
• Each application assigned to a process in the transport layer
• Each process is allocated to a logical Port.
• Each port defined by port number decided by the
Karnal of the OS called port address.
• Port address is a 16-bit represented by one decimal number

port address used for Process within the system called:

- Port number (TCP/IP).
- Service access point or SAP (OSI)

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
 Port addresses: Example
There are 2 computers
communicate via the
Internet.
The sending running 3
processes at the same time
with port addresses a, b,
and c.

The receiving computer is running two processes at the same time

with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending computer communicate with process j in
the receiving computer.
 Physical addresses Concepts
• When referring to computer memory, the
physical address is the computer memory address
of a physical hardware device.
• When referring to a network address, physical
address is used to describe the MAC address
that specified by the manufacture company of the
card.
•This address is used by data link layer.
MAC address:
• A hardware address that uniquely identifies
each node of a network.
 Physical addresses Example
In Figure: a node with physical address 10 sends a frame
to a node with physical address 87.
The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology
LAN). As the figure shows:
•The computer with physical address 10 is the sender,
•The computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
 Explain of physical addresses Example
• The data link layer at the sender 10 receives data from
an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a frame.
The frame is propagated through the LAN.
• Each station with a physical address other than 87
drops the frame because the destination address in the
frame does not match its own physical address.
• When the intended destination computer, finds a
match between the destination address in the frame
and its own physical address catch the frame.
 Logical addresses (IP)
•An IP address of the system is called logical address.
•This address is the combination of Net ID and Host ID.
• This address is used by network layer to identify a
particular network (source to destination) among the
networks.
Network Network Host Host
172 19 0 0

•This address can be changed by changing the host

position on the network. So it is called logical address.
•The IP address is the logical address assigned to your
connection by your ISP or network administrator.
•The logical address is what the network uses to pass
information along to your computer.
 Example- on logical address
Figure: a part of internet with 2 routers connecting 3 LANs.
Each node (computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection.

Each computer is
connected to only one
link and therefore has
only one pair of
addresses.
Each router is connected
to 3 networks (only 2 are
shown in the figure). So
each router has 3 pairs
of addresses, one pair for
each connection.
 Note

The physical addresses change from

hop to hop, but the logical and port
addresses usually remain the same.

Note

Global address:
The logical address and physical address are used to route
packets through networks to destination indicated by a
network level address in the Packet
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