Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “b,” “f,” and “t” refer to boxes, figures, and tables, respectively.

A oxidation, 8, 301, 305, 311 318

production, 219, 223, 232
Absorption
properties, 231 232
ammonia, 172, 249
stage III reaction, 232 263
columns, 46 47, 303 304, 307 309, 370, 391,
converter design, 238 248
391f
production processes, 249 263
NO2, 301
reaction kinetics, 235 238
sulfuric acid, 370
thermodynamics, 232 235
Absorption tower, 371f
storage, 232
mechanism of nitric acid production in, 328f
usage, 232
AD. See Anaerobic digestion (AD)
vapor pressure of, 231t
AFEX. See Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX)
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX), 408 409, 409f,
Air, 61
409t
atmospheric pollution, 103
Ammonia oxidation, 311 318
composition, 61, 62t
explosion limit for ammonia oxygen mixtures,
humid air, 103 114
314
as raw material, 300
factors that affect catalyst losses, 313 314
uses, 61 62
reaction and equilibrium, 311 312
Air distillation, 86 97
reaction kinetics and mechanism, 314 318
Linde’s double column, 90 97, 90f
Ammonia soda process, 169 175
argon separation and purification, 97, 98f
Ammonia-based processes, 301 339
Linde’s simple column, 87 88, 88f
process analysis, 311 339
simple column with recycle, 89
absorption of NOx, 326 339
Claude’s column, 89
ammonia oxidation, 311 318
recompression, 89
nitrogen peroxide equilibrium, 323 325
Air liquefaction
NO oxidation to NO2, 318 322
cascade cycle for, 86, 87f
process description, 301 311
Claude cycle for, 82 84, 83f
Anaerobic digestion (AD), 430
Air separation, 62 102
Aniline, 7
chemical separation, 63
Antoine correlation, 43, 104
cryogenic methods. See Cryogenic methods
and phase change, 453
noncryogenic air separation.
Argon separation and purification, 97, 98f
See Noncryogenic air separation
Aromatic polyamide membranes, 151
history, 62 63
ASPEN, 39
physical separation, 65 67
ASPEN plus, 49
Air separation technologies, comparison of, 102t
Atmospheric pollution, 103
Alchemists, 3 4
Autoreforming, 223
Alcohol recovery, 437 439
Axial flow converters, 240
Algae, 411 413
Algae growth reactors, 413f
Alkali Acts, 167 169
Alkali catalysts, 425 426 B
Alternative technologies, 16 Badische Anilin und Soda Fabric (BASF), 6
evaluation, 16 17 Barley beer, 3
Amines, 224 227 Bartholin, Thomas, 129 130
Ammonia, 74 75, 231 263 BASF. See Badische Anilin und Soda Fabric
catalyzed production of, 236f (BASF)
converter, 312f Batch reactors, 48
Kellogg process for production of, 250f Bead polymerization, 414

469
470 Index

Beer column, 31 32, 432 435 Businesses in the chemical industry, 12f
Beer multieffect column, 433f Butanol, 422
Berthollet, C., 231
Beyher, Samuel, 129 130
Biodiesel, 411, 421, 437 439 C
production, using solid catalysts, 437f Calcium carbide, 7
Bioethanol, 415 420 Calcium carbonate, lime production from,
production process, 14f 181 187
Biogas, 430 432 Calcium oxide, 437 438
process analysis, 431 432 Caoutchouc. See Rubber
gas composition, 432 Carbon dioxide
kinetics, 431 432 capture, 13, 61 62, 186, 187f, 224 225, 224f,
process description, 431 228f, 255 256, 411 412
Biomass, 13, 199, 405 448 hydrogenation, 264, 281
algae, 411 413 utilization, 158
grain, 405 Casale process, 255
intermediate processing, 415 432 Cascade cycle, 86
biogas. See Biogas for air liquefaction, 87f
oil, 425 430 energy consumption in, 87t
sugars. See Sugars Cavendish, Henry, 62 63
syngas, 424 425 Cellulosic membranes, 151
lignocellulosic, 405 411 Chamber acid, 355 356
biooil production, 407 CHEMCAD, 39, 49
paper production, 411 Chemical equilibrium, 42 43
sugar production, 407 411 Chemical industry, businesses in, 12f
syngas production, 407 Chemical industry, evolution of, 1 12, 11f
natural rubber, 413 415 alchemists, 3 4
historical perspective, 413 414 first settlements, 1 3
mechanism and kinetics, 414 415 industrial revolution, 5 8
polymerization processes, 414 coal gas industry, 7 8
product purification, 432 439 siderurgy, 5
alcohol recovery, 437 439 sodium carbonate industry—soda processes, 7
ethanol dehydration, 432 436 sulfuric acid industry, 6
hydrocarbon and alcohol mixture separation, textile industry, 6
436 437 industrial society, 8 10
penicillin purification, 439 coal gasification, 9
seeds, 411 nitric acid industry, 8
thermodynamic cycles, 439 441 petrochemical industry, 9 10
Brayton cycle, 441, 442f polymers, 9
Rankine cycle, 439 441, 440f lower middle ages, 4
types and preprocessing, 405 415 middle ages, 4 5
Biooil production, 407 prehistory, 1
Bipolar electrolyzers, 159 renewable and nonconventional-based
Black, Joseph, 62 63 development, 10
Block flow diagrams, 33, 33f Chemical plants, 13
Block flow process diagram, 33, 34f equipment involved in accidents in, 51f
Boiling point, 86 87, 131 132, 179 Chemical processes, 13
Boudouard equilibrium, 203, 204f flow diagrams, 33 39
Boudouard reaction, 203, 276 symbols, 35 39
Boyle, Robert, 129 130 types, 33 35
Brayton cycle, 439, 441, 442f mass and energy balances review, 39 49
Bromine, 165 equation-based approach, 40 49
Bubbling-type fluidized bed, 214 215 modular simulation, 49
Bulk polymerization, 414 optimization and process control, 49
 Index 471

principles of process design, 17 32 heat integration, 373

evolutionary methods, 17 oleum production, 372
hierarchy decomposition, 17 secondary products, 372
superstructure optimization, 17 selenium removal, 372
problems, 55 58 SO2, catalytic oxidation of, 369 371, 369f
process engineering, 13 17 SO3 hydration, 371 372
design criteria, 16 17 sulfur combustion, 367 369
mass and energy balances, 16 Control instruments and data legend, 39, 39f
problem definition, 16 Converter
process synthesis, 16 ammonia, 304t, 312f, 313f
process sustainability, 54 55 methanol, 249
integrated production protection strategy, SO2, 369 370, 374f
54 55 Countercurrent tube-cooled converter (TVA
mitigation strategy, 55 converter), 243f
safe process design, 50 54 Critical temperature, 63
detailed design review, 53 54 Crude oil, 200 201
preliminary hazard review, 52 composition of, 201f
process hazard review, 53 Cryogenic methods, 63 99
Chemical water purification, 157, 157f air distillation, 86 97
Chile saltpeter, 8 Linde’s double column, 90 97, 90f
Circulating-type fluidized bed, 214 215 Linde’s simple column, 87 88, 88f
Claude, George, 82 simple column with recycle, 89
Claude reactor, 252f Cascade cycle, 86
Claude’s column, 89 Claude’s cycle, 82 84
Claude’s cycle, 82 84 analysis, 82 84
for air liquefaction, 83f description, 82
analysis, 82 84 Linde Hampson air liquefaction cycle, 67 82,
description, 82 75f
Claude’s process, 249, 252f analysis, 68 82
Claus process, 7, 229, 230f, 249, 347 348 description, 67 68
CO2 absorber, 227f Phillips’s cycle, 85 86
CO2 capture, 187f storage, 98 99
absorption isotherm and capacity of molecular Crystallization, 144
sieves for, 228f Current yield, 159
using alkali solutions, 224 225, 224f
Coal, 199
Coal distillation, 213 214 D
Coal gas industry, 7 8 Darvy, Abraham, 5
Coal gasification, 9 Dephlogisticated air, 62 63
Coal-based syngas production, 207f Desalination of seawater, 129 157
Column sequencing, heuristics for, 20 24 technologies based on salts separation, 156 157
Commercial electrolyzers, 159 160 chemical depuration, 157
Concentrated solar power, 10, 158, 188, 439 440 electrodialysis, 157
Contact method, for sulfuric acid production, ion exchange, 157
366 397, 366f technologies based on water separation,
history, 366 131 156
process analysis, 373 397 evaporation, 131 147
mixing tanks: heat of solution, 394 397 extraction using solvents, 149
oxidation kinetics, 384 390 freezing, 147 148
oxidation thermodynamics, 373 383 hydrate production, 148
SO3 absorption, 391 393 reverse osmosis, 149 156
process description, 366 373 Deuterium, 201 203
construction materials, 373 Dew point, 44, 437 438
emissions, 373 Dewar, James, 63
472 Index

Dilute acid pretreatment, 410f, 410t Enthalpy of reaction, 41 42

Dimethyl furfural (DMF), 421 422 Equilibrium
Dimethylether (DME), 282 283 ammonia, 311 312
Direct cooled multibed reactors, 270f biodiesel, 428
Distillation, 20 NO, 318, 321t, 322f
air distillation, 86 97 NO2, 318, 322f, 327, 336
coal, 213 214 SO2, 375t, 379t
McCabe, 45 Equilibrium constant, computing, 323
multieffect, 32f Equilibrium relationships, 42 47
sequence, 20, 22f, 23f, 24f chemical equilibrium, 42 43
of water methanol mixture, 274 276 phase equilibrium, 43 47
DME. See Dimethylether (DME) gas liquid equilibrium, 43 47
DMF. See Dimethyl furfural (DMF) liquid liquid equilibrium, 47
Douglas hierarchy, 18 32 Ethanethiol, 218 219
level 1: batch versus continuous process, 18 Ethanol
level 2: input output structure, 18 dehydration, 432 436
level 3: recycle, 19 production, 425, 432
level 4: separation structure, 19 24 Evaporation, 131 147
synthesis of distillation sequences, 20 24 evaporator design, 132
level 5: heat recovery and integration, 24 multieffect evaporators, 139 147
heat exchanger networks, 25 32 multieffect, 131 132, 139 144, 146t, 147t
DOW index, 52 single effect, 132, 133f
Dow’s method, 165 single-effect evaporators, 132 138, 133f
Downdraft-type fixed bed, 214 215 three-effect evaporation system, 132f
Dry reforming and autoreforming, 223 Evolution of chemical industry, 1 10
Dual alchemists, 3 4
nitric acid dual process, 301 first settlements, 1 3
Dual-pressure process, 305, 307f industrial revolution, 5 8
Dühring diagram, 131 132, 134 coal gas industry, 7 8
for NaCl solutions, 133f siderurgy, 5
for NaOH, 135f sodium carbonate industry, 7
sulfuric acid industry, 6
textile industry, 6
E industrial society, 8 10
Economic evaluation, 15 coal gasification, 9
Economic sustainability, 54 nitric acid industry, 8
Electrodialysis, 157 petrochemical industry, 9 10
Electrolysis of water, 158 163 polymers, 9
commercial electrolyzers, 159 160 lower middle ages, 4
fuel cells, 161 163 middle ages, 4 5
Electrolyzers, 159 prehistory, 1
bipolar, 159 renewable and nonconventional-based
schemes for, 160f development, 10
tank-type, 159 Explosives, 7
Emission control and building issues, 339 340 Extraction using solvents, 149
Emulsion polymerization, 414 Extractive distillation, 307 309, 308f
Energy balances, 41 42
Energy consumption
in cascade cycle, 87t F
in Linde’s cycle, 67t FAEE. See Fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE)
Energy efficiency, 159 FAME. See Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)
Energy ratio, 158 159 Fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE), 421, 421t, 425
Engineering materials, evolution of, 2f Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), 425 426
Enthalpy diagrams, 41 Fauser process, 254, 254f, 255f
 Index 473

FCC. See Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) Glover acid, 355

Feed systems, types of, 139, 140f
Fenske Equation, 45
FERCO/Battelle gasifier system, 216f
Fermentation, 408 409, 415 416
ethanol production via, 432
syngas fermentation, 425
Fick’s Law, 100 101
Filter press cells, 159
Fischer Tropsch (FT) technology, for fuel and
hydrocarbon production, 263 283, 425
methanol production, 263 276
methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282 283
syngas reaction to Fischer Tropsch liquids,
276 281
mechanisms, 276 278, 277f
product distribution, 279 280
product upgrading and refinery processes,
280 281
reactor types, 278 279, 278f
syngas production and synthesis, 279
use of CO2 to chemicals, 281 282
Fixed air, 62 63
Fixed beds, 214 215
Flash, 19, 43 44, 411, 437
Fleming, Alexander, 422
Flow diagrams, 33 39
symbols, 35 39
types, 33 35
Flowsheeting, 35 39
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), 280 281, 281f
Fluidized beds, 214 215
Fossil reserves, 200f
Freezing desalination, 147 148, 149f
Fresnel, Augustin, 169
Fuel cells, 161 163, 161f
Furans, 421 422
G HTFT. See High-temperature Fischer Tropsch
Gas absorption membranes, 228 229
Gas generator, 203 213, 255 256, 256f
partial oxidation (gas generator), 203 204
steam processing (water gas), 204 213
Gas law, 47
Gas-heated reformers, advantages of, 220t
Gasification, 214 217, 255
coal, 9
Gasifier designs, 214f
Gas liquid equilibrium, 43 47
Gas Solid Solid Trickle Flow Reactor
(GSSTFR), 273
Gay-Lussac, 6, 299, 354
Gilliland’s equation, 46
Glucose fermentation, 421
Glycerol, 438 439
Gossage, William, 7
Grain, 405
Graphic process diagram, 34, 34f
GSSTFR. See Gas Solid Solid Trickle Flow
Reactor (GSSTFR)
H
H3PO4, 437 438
Haber converter, 251f
Haber Bosch process, 8 9, 231, 249, 251f
Haldor Topsoe process, for ammonia production,
256 263, 256f
Hausen’s diagram, 64, 64f
Linde’s cycle in, 69f
Hauser diagram hydrogen, 201 203, 202f
Hazard, 50
HAZOP analysis, 53 54, 53f
HCl production from NaCl (Mannheim process),
181
Heat exchanger networks (HENs), 24 32
multieffect columns, 31 32
structure, 28 31
utilities minimization, 25 28
Heat of solution, 394 397, 454
Heavy Gasoline Treater (HGT), 283
Henry’s Law, 100 101
HENs. See Heat exchanger networks (HENs)
Hevea brasiliensis, 414
HGT. See Heavy Gasoline Treater (HGT)
High-pressure process, 306f
High-temperature Fischer Tropsch (HTFT), 276,
278 281
High-temperature sweet shifting, 205
Hollow fiber membrane, 152, 153f
Homogeneous acid catalysts, 426
(HTFT)
Humid air, 103 114
Humidification, 43
Humidity
relative, 106, 110 111, 357
specific, 108, 112
Hybrid cycles, 165
Hydrate production, 148
Hydrocarbon and alcohol mixture separation,
436 437
Hydrocarbon and synthesis fuel production FT,
223 230
removal of carbon oxides, 230
removal of CO (ammonia synthesis), 230
474 Index

Hydrocarbon and synthesis fuel production FT furans, 421 422

(Continued) ibutene, 421
removal of H2S, 229 230 penicillin, 422 424
sour gas removal, 224 229 syngas, 424 425
alkali solutions, 224 227 Ion exchange, 157
cryogenic separation, 229 Isentropic efficiency, 82
membrane separation, 228 229 Isoprene, 414
mineral storage and capture, 229
physical absorption, 227
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 227 228 J
water removal (ammonia synthesis), 230 Jaenecke diagram, 171, 172f
Hydrocarbons, steam reforming of, 217 222 JEDI. See Jobs and Economic Development
Hydrochloric acid, 7 Impact (JEDI)
Hydrocracking, 280 281 Jobs and Economic Development Impact (JEDI),
Hydrogen, 8, 63, 102, 158 163, 201 203, 218f, 54
238, 244 248 Joule-Thompson (Kelvin) effect, 63
Hydrogen and H2:CO mixture production,
201 223
coal distillation, 213 214 K
dry reforming and autoreforming, 223 Kellogg four-bed vertical quench converter, 240f
gas generator—water gas method, 203 213 Kellogg process, for ammonia production, 249,
gasification, 214 217 250f
steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217 222 Kellogg-type converter, 270
thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217 Kinetics
Hydrogen economy, 159 160 ammonia, 232, 235 238
ammonia oxidation, 314 318
biodiesel, 421, 429t
I biogas, 431 432
Ibutene, 421 ethanol, 416, 416b
purification, 436 437 methanol, 265 269, 425
India rubber. See Rubber NO, 314 319
Indirect cooled converter, 271f penicillin, 422 423
Industrial revolution, 5 8 SO2, 384
coal gas industry, 7 8 Kinetics and reactor design, 48
siderurgy, 5 Kinetics of the reaction, 323
sodium carbonate industry, 7 Klentz, Trevor, 51 52
sulfuric acid industry, 6 Kubiersky method, 165
textile industry, 6 Kuhlmann, Frédéric, 8
Industrial society, 8 10
coal gasification, 9
nitric acid industry, 8 L
petrochemical industry, 9 10 LCA. See Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
polymers, 9 Le Chatelier’s principle, 312
Intensive method for sulfuric acid production, Lead chambers process, 6, 347, 354 356
356 365, 357f Leblanc process, 6 7
Intermediate processing, 415 432 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 54
biogas, 430 432 Lignin, 405 406
process analysis, 431 432 Lignocellulosic biomass, 405 411
process description, 431 biooil production, 407
oil, 425 430 paper production, 411
sugars, 415 424 structure, 406f
biodiesel, 421 sugar production, 407 411
bioethanol, 415 420 chemical pretreatment, 409 410
butanol, 422 enzymatic pretreatment, 411
 Index 475

physicochemical processes, 408 409 series operation, 154f

syngas production, 407 types, 151
Lime production from calcium carbonate, Methanation (ammonia synthesis), 230
181 187 Methane hydrate, 10
Linde’s block diagram, 68f Methane production, 281 282
Linde’s cycle Methane steam reforming, 217
energy consumption in, 67t Methanogenesis, 431 432
in Hausen’s diagram, 69f Methanol production, 263 276, 282
in Mollier’s diagram, 69f flowsheet, 273, 273f
Linde’s design, 97 kinetics of, 265 269
Linde’s double column, 90 97, 90f Methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282 283
argon separation and purification, 97, 98f Middle ages, 4 5
Linde’s equation, 66 Mineral coal, 5
Linde’s simple column, 87 88, 88f Mixed alcohol synthesis, 425
Linde Hampson air liquefaction cycle, 67 82, Modular simulation, 49, 49f
75f Mollier’s diagram, 65, 65f, 85
analysis, 68 82 Linde’s cycle in, 69f
description, 67 68 Monod kinetics, 422 423
Linde Hampson cycle with precooling, 74 75, MTG. See Methanol to gasoline (MTG)
75f Multibed reactor, 241, 370
Liquefaction process, 65 66, 98f with direct cooling, 239, 239f
Liquid liquid equilibrium, 47 with indirect cooling, 241, 241f
Liquid liquid separation, 19 with intercooling, 270
Lower middle ages, 4 Multieffect
Low-temperature Fischer Tropsch (LTFT), 276, distillation columns, 24, 31 32, 32f, 33f
278 279, 281 evaporators, 131, 139 147
Low-temperature sweet shifting, 205 Murdoch, William, 7
LPMEOH, 272
LTFT. See Low-temperature Fischer Tropsch
(LTFT) N
NaCl solutions, Dühring diagram for, 133f
NaOH solutions
M Dühring diagram for, 135f
Mass and energy balances, 16, 39 49 enthalpy of, 136f
equation-based approach, 40 49 National Energy Renewable Lab (NREL), 409
design equations for the units, 49 Natural gas (NG), 199 200
energy balances, 41 42 Natural rubber. See Rubber
equilibrium relationships, 42 47 Neon, 97
kinetics and reactor design, 48 NG. See Natural gas (NG)
mass, heat, and momentum transfer, 47 48 Nitric acid, 299
modular simulation, 49 emission control and building issues, 339 340
McCabe’s ΔL law, 144 145 history, 299
Medium-pressure process, 303f major products from, 300f
Melted NaCl, electrochemical decomposition of, production processes, 299 339
179 air as raw material, 300
Membrane ammonia-based processes. See Ammonia-
characteristics, 151 based processes
configuration, 151 152 from nitrates, 300
types, 151 uses, 299
Membrane gas separation, 101f Nitric acid industry, 8
Membrane WGSR, 206f Nitrogen
Membranes, in reverse osmosis, 151 production, 223
configurations, 151 152 properties of, 61
parallel operation, 154f Noble gases, 62
476 Index

Noncryogenic air separation, 99 102 Principles of process design, 17 32

chemical-based processes, 102 evolutionary methods, 17
membranes, 100 102 Douglas hierarchy, 18 32
pressure swing adsorption cycles, 99 100 hierarchy decomposition, 17
Nordhausen acid, 372 superstructure optimization, 17
Noxious air, 62 63 Process diagrams, 33 34
NREL. See National Energy Renewable Lab (NREL) Process engineer, 13 15
Process flow diagrams, 34 35, 36f
Process flowsheeting, 35 39, 38f
O Process scale-up, 15
Oil, 425 430 Process sustainability, 54 55
Oil extraction, process for integrated production protection strategy,
from seeds, 412f 54 55
Oleum, 348 mitigation strategy, 55
production, 372 Propane steam reforming, 221b
Optimization and process control, 49 PSA. See Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
Organic membranes, 151 PV solar energy. See Photovoltaic (PV) solar
Osmosis, 149 energy
Osmotic pressure, 149 150 Pyrite complexes, 347 348
Ostwald process, 301 Pyrite roasting, 351 354, 353t
Oxygen, properties of, 62 Pyrrhotite, 351 352

P Q
Paper production, 411 Quench converters, 239
Pará rubber tree, 414
Penicillin, 422 424
purification, 439 R
Petrochemical industry, 9 10 Radial flow converters, 240
Phase equilibrium, 43 47 Radical polymerization, 414 415
gas liquid equilibrium, 43 47 Rankine cycle, 439 441, 440f
liquid liquid equilibrium, 47 Raoult’s Law, 46
Phillips, Peregrine, 6, 366 Reaction kinetics, 318 319
Phillips’s cycle, 85 86 Recompression, 89
thermodynamic representation of, 85f Rectisol process (Lurgi), 227
Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy, 10 Reformer, 250f
Pinch analysis, 28 29 autoreforming, 223
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram, 34 35, 37f dry, 223
Platinum meshes, 314f gas-heated, 220t
Plug flow/packed bed reactors, 48 Refrigerant, 148
Cis-1,4-Polyisoprene, 414 Relative moisture, 103
Polymerization, 414 Renewable and nonconventional-based
Polymers, 9 development, 10
Polytropic compression, 42 Renugas gasifier, 215, 215f
Potassium nitrate, 299 Reverse osmosis, 149 156, 150f
Power production, 441 442 membrane characteristics, 151
Pressure membrane configurations, 151 152
drop, 48, 240 operation of membrane modules, 153 156
partial, 42 43, 233 235 separation factors, 150 151
vapor, 43, 103, 187f, 231t types of membranes by materials, 151
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 99, 100f, 219, Rice beer, 3
227 228 Rising steam converter, 270 271, 272f
PSA cycles, 99 100 Risk, defined, 50
Priestley, Joseph, 62 63, 414 Roebuck, John, 6, 347

Rubber, 413 415
historical perspective, 413 414
mechanism and kinetics, 414 415
polymerization processes, 414
Rutherford, Daniel, 62 63
S Siderurgy, 5
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 415 416
Safe process design, 50 54
detailed design review, 53 54
preliminary hazard review, 52
process hazard review, 53
Salinity of water, 128 129
Salt separation, 130 131
Salts precipitated by solar evaporation, 165t
Saltwater, 129 130
Sankey diagram, 34, 35f
Seawater
desalination, 129 157
chemical depuration, 157
electrodialysis, 157
evaporation, 131 147
extraction using solvents, 149
freezing, 147 148
hydrate production, 148
ion exchange, 157
reverse osmosis, 149 156
technologies based on separation of salts,
156 157
technologies based on water separation,
131 156
electrolysis, 158 163
commercial electrolyzers, 159 160
fuel cells, 161 163
as raw material, 128 187
salinity, 128 129
sodium chloride industry, 165 187
electrochemical decomposition of melted
NaCl, 179
electrolytic decomposition of NaCl in
solution, 179 181
production and use of sodium carbonate,
166 179
production of HCl from NaCl (Mannheim
process), 181
production of lime from calcium carbonate,
181 187
thermochemical cycles for water splitting,
163 165
family of sulfur, 164
family of the halides, 163 164
family of the oxides, 164
hybrid cycles, 165
Index 477
Second-generation bioethanol production
reactions and conversions in, 416t
Seeds, 411
process for oil extraction from, 412f
Selenium removal, 372
Selexol process, 227
Shale gas, 10, 199 200
Simple column with recycle, 89
Claude’s column, 89, 89f
recompression, 89, 89f
Single-effect evaporators, 132 138, 133f
Slurry reactor, 272, 272f
Social sustainability, 54
Soda ash. See Sodium carbonate
Soda processes, 7
Sodium carbonate, 166 179
production via Leblanc’s process, 166 169
production via Solvay’s process, 169 175,
182b
chemical history of the process, 169 170
flowsheet, 170 175
usage of, 175 179
Sodium carbonate industry, 7
Sodium chloride industry, 165 187
electrochemical decomposition of melted NaCl,
179
electrolytic decomposition of NaCl in solution,
179 181
production of HCl from NaCl (Mannheim
process), 181
production of lime from calcium carbonate,
181 187
sodium carbonate, 166 179
production via Leblanc’s process, 166 169
production via Solvay’s process, 169 175
usage of, 175 179
Solar evaporation, 129 130, 165
salts precipitated by, 165t
Solar evaporators, 147, 148f
Solvay, Ernest, 170
Solvay process, 7, 169 175
Solvay Tower, 170 171
Sour gases, 13, 224 229
Specific enthalpy, 41
Specific moisture, 43, 103
Specific molar moisture, 103
Spiral membranes, 152, 153f
Stainless steel, 340
Starch molecule, 406f
Steam properties, 454 456
compressed liquid, 455
overheated steam (10 bar 150 bar), 455 456
overheated steam (up to 10 bar), 455
478 Index

Steam properties (Continued) Syngas production, 201 223, 407

saturated liquid, 455 hydrogen and H2:CO mixture production,
saturated vapor, 455 201 223
Steam reforming, 217 218 coal distillation, 213 214
Steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217 222 dry reforming and autoreforming, 223
Sugar production, 407 411 gasification, 214 217
chemical pretreatment, 409 410 steam reforming of hydrocarbons, 217 222
enzymatic pretreatment, 411 thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217
physicochemical processes, 408 409 water gas method, 203 213
Sugars, 415 424 nitrogen production, 223
biodiesel, 421 Syngas purification, 223 230
bioethanol, 415 420 ammonia production, 223
butanol, 422 hydrocarbon and synthesis fuel production FT,
dehydration, 421 422 223 230
fermentation, 415 416 removal of carbon oxides, 230
furans, 421 422 removal of CO (ammonia synthesis), 230
ibutene, 421 removal of H2S, 229 230
penicillin, 422 424 sour gas removal, 224 229
Sulfides, 347 348 water removal (ammonia synthesis), 230
Sulfur Syngas synthesis, 231 283
burner, 368f, 369 ammonia, 231 263
combustion, 367 369 stage III reaction, 232 263
oxidation, 347, 366 367, 369 371 Fischer Tropsch technology for fuel and
recovery. See Claus process hydrocarbon production, 263 283
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), catalytic oxidation of, 355, methanol production, 263 276
369 371, 369f methanol to gasoline (MTG), 282 283
multibed reactor, 370 syngas reaction to Fischer Tropsch liquids,
tubular packed beds, 370 276 281
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), 348 use of CO2 to chemicals, 281 282
hydration, 371 372 Synthetic rubber, 9, 414
Sulfuric acid, 4, 307 309, 347
applications, 348
chemical properties, 349 351 T
global production, 348 349 Tank-type electrolyzers, 159
health and safety issues, 348 Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA), 99
history, 347 Texaco syngas generation process (TSGP), 255,
pyrite roasting, 351 354 255f
raw materials, 347 348 Textile industry, 6
Sulfuric acid industry, 6 Thermal decomposition/partial oxidation, 217
Sulfuric acid production, 6, 347, 354 397 Thermochemical biomass processing, 407f
contact method. See Contact method, for Thermochemical cycles for water splitting,
sulfuric acid production 163 165
distribution of, across regions, 349f Thermochemistry, 453
double-stage absorption process for, 368f Thermodynamic cycles, 439 441
intensive method, 356 365, 357f Brayton cycle, 441, 442f
lead chamber process, 347, 354 356 Rankine cycle, 439 441, 440f
single-stage absorption process for, 367f Thermodynamic representation of Phillips’s cycle,
Supersaturation, 144 145 85f
Sustainability, 54 55 Titanium, 340
Sustainable development, 54 Transesterification reaction, 425 426
Syngas, 9, 199, 424 425 Tritium, 201 203
coal, 199 Tropsch, Hans, 263
crude oil, 200 201 TSA. See Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA)
natural gas (NG), 199 200 TSGP. See Texaco syngas generation process
problems, 283 295 (TSGP)
 Index 479

Tube converters, 242 248, 243f withdrawal and consumption across the world,
Tubular membranes, 152, 152f 125 127, 127f
Tubular packed beds, 369f, 370 Water expansion, 148
Tubular reactors, 270, 413f Water gas shift (WGS), 204 205, 206b
for methanol synthesis, 270, 271f Water gas shift reaction (WGSR), 204, 217 218
membrane WGSR, 206f
sour, 205 206
U sweet operation of, 205
Uhde’s ammonia process, 249 253, 253f Water phase diagram, 147, 148f
Uhde’s medium-pressure process flowsheet, 303 Water separation, technologies based on, 131 156
Unipolar electrodes. See Tank-type electrolyzers evaporation, 131 147
Unit energy consumption, 158 multieffect evaporators, 139 147
single-effect evaporators, 132 138
extraction using solvents, 149
V freezing, 147 148
Vacuum-insulated tanks and dewars, 99f hydrate production, 148
Van Helmont, Johann, 347 reverse osmosis, 149 156
Vapor recompression, 147 Water splitting, thermochemical cycles for,
VFA. See Volatile fatty acids (VFA) 163 165
Volatile fatty acids (VFA), 431 Water thermodynamics, 130 131
Water energy nexus, 188
Water sulfuric acid system, 349 351
W Watt, James, 6
Washing soda. See Sodium carbonate WGS. See Water gas shift (WGS)
Water, 125 WGSR. See Water gas shift reaction (WGSR)
consumption per capita, 126f Wilkinson, John, 5
distribution on earth, 126t Willson, Thomas L., 7
problems, 188 197 Wind energy, 10, 158 160
scarcity, 126f Wöhler, Friedrich, 7
seawater
desalination, 129 157
electrolysis, 158 163 X
as raw material, 128 187 Xylose, 421
salinity, 128 129
sodium chloride industry, 165 187
thermochemical cycles for water splitting, Z
163 165 Ziegler Natta catalysts, 415
water energy nexus, 188 Zymomonas mobilis, 415 416