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Characterization of a novel photon counting detector for clinical CT: Count rate,
energy resolution, and noise performance

Article  in  Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering · February 2009
DOI: 10.1117/12.813915

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 Characterization of a novel photon counting detector for clinical CT:
count rate, energy resolution, and noise performance
William C. Barber*a, Einar Nygarda,c, Jan S. Iwanczyka, Mengxi Zhangb, Eric C. Freyb, Benjamin
M. W. Tsuib, Jan C. Wesselc, Nail Malakhova,c, Gregor Wawrzyniakc, Neal E. Hartsougha, Thulasi
Gandhia, Katsuyuki Taguchib
a
DxRay Inc., 19355 Business Center Dr., Suite 10, Northridge, CA, USA 94324
b
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MA, USA 21218
c
Interon AS., Nye Vakaas Vei 78, N-1395, Hvalstad, Norway

ABSTRACT

We report on a characterization study of a multi-row direct-conversion x-ray detector used to generate the first photon
counting clinical x-ray computed tomography (CT) patent images. In order to provide the photon counting detector with
adequate performance for low-dose CT applications, we have designed and fabricated a fast application specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) for data readout from the pixellated CdTe detectors that comprise the photon counting detector.
The cadmium telluride (CdTe) detector has 512 pixels with a 1 mm pitch and is vertically integrated with the ASIC
readout so it can be tiled in two dimensions similar to those that are tiled in an arc found in 32-row multi-slice CT
systems. We have measured several important detector parameters including the maximum output count rate, energy
resolution, and noise performance. Additionally the relationship between the output and input rate has been found to fit a
non-paralyzable detector model with a dead time of 160 nsec. A maximum output rate of 6 × 106 counts per second per
pixel has been obtained with a low output x-ray tube for CT operated between 0.01 mA and 6 mA at 140 keV and
different source-to-detector distances. All detector noise counts are less that 20 keV which is sufficiently low for clinical
CT. The energy resolution measured with the 60 keV photons from a 241Am source is ~12%. In conclusion, our results
demonstrate the potential for the application of the CdTe based photon counting detector to clinical CT systems. Our
future plans include further performance improvement by incorporating drift structures to each detector pixel.
Keywords: CdTe, ASIC, CT, photon counting
*william.barber@dxray.com; phone 1 818 280-0177; fax 1 818 709-7036; wbarber.webs.com

1. INTRODUCTION
The soft tissue contrast and spatial resolution of images which can be produced by clinical X-ray computed tomography
(CT) scanners have enabled CT to become one of the most widespread modalities for diagnostic imaging. Although used
clinically for several decades, CT continues to improve performance as new technologies are incorporated and so effort
to improve CT detectors continues to be an active area of research. Current CT scanners provide three-dimensional
images that accurately delineate tissues and help physicians make accurate diagnoses. However, there are two major
limitations in current CT technologies. These limitations are; large doses of radiation to patients, and insufficient
contrast resolution to discriminate tissues. Both these limitations are addressed by the development of a photon counting
CT technology. For example, in order to improve contrast at reduced dose, photon counting detectors have been
considered to develop alternatives to conventional x-ray detectors used in radiography and CT1,2,3. Photon counting x-ray
detectors applied to mammography and radiography have shown a dose reduction of 40% to 400% while maintaining
sufficient contrast for these applications4,5. Simulations have shown that photon counting along with optimal energy
weighting can increase dose efficiency up to 40% for digital mammography as compared to a conventional integrating
system6,7. One group has reported that the lesion detection signal to noise ratio is significantly affected by the energy
dependence of the detector’s quantum efficiency and the varying contrast carried by different energies in the beam
spectrum8. Recent studies have demonstrated that weighting photons by a factor of E-3 can lead to an improved SNR
compared to simple photon counting or energy weighting (as in intensity-integrating or current-mode detectors). In
another simulation study it was demonstrated that a photon counting detector can reduce beam hardening and improve

Medical Imaging 2009: Physics of Medical Imaging, edited by Ehsan Samei, Jiang Hsieh,
Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258, 725824 · © 2009 SPIE
CCC code: 1605-7422/09/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.813915

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-1

lesion signal to noise ratio compared to conventional detectors; optimally weighting the photons further improved the
signal to noise ratio but resulted in greater beam hardening due to the greater weight given to lower energy photons9.
Current conventional CT systems typically use a detector comprised of Si photodiodes that are optically coupled to a
scintillator. In these detectors, the energy deposited by the absorbed x-rays is integrated. This produces the energy
integrated CT images used clinically for many decades. A drawback of such detectors however is in their inability to
provide data or feedback as to the number and energy of photons detected. One problem with these detectors is that there
is a lower limit of detection defined by noise in the detector such that a certain pixel with no incident radiation will
produce some signal due to thermal and shot noise. There are additional major deficiencies of integrating (current mode)
systems, such as not taking advantage of statistical information carried by each photon (e.g. 3 photons of 30 keV carry
the same information as one photon of 90 keV) and not using information about energy of the counted photons For
example, because a poly-energetic x-ray spectrum is used, each detected photon also contributes different information to
the resulting image depending on density and elemental composition of the examined tissue. Utilization of the energy
information carried by individual photons can lead to further improvement of the quality of the image and/or reduction
of the radiation dose. This is accomplished by optimal energy weighting to increase soft tissue contrast. Because of these
limits inherent in current mode detectors, there has been a mounting effort to move away from this technique and
explore photon counting detectors for x-ray CT imaging applications.
Recently, dual kVp systems have been developed to generate a high and low energy CT images in a single patient scan.
This can be accomplished with the use of either two x-ray tubes or a single tube capable of switching kVp settings. This
method essentially requires scanning the patient twice which is not advantages from a dose perspective. A number of
cadmium telluride (CdTe) photon counting CT detector modules fabricated by us and using our fast application specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) technology has been used to create a prototype clinical photon counting CT system and the first
simultaneous dual energy patient images acquired with a single x-ray tube at one kVp setting.

2. METHODOLOGY
Single photon counting detectors with energy discrimination capabilities have been developed for nuclear medicine
application such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT)10,11. If photon counting detectors are applicable for x-ray CT imaging, they have the potential to address both of
the two major problems inherent in current mode CT imaging, namely, dose and contrast. Photon counting detectors will
not add noise; they count each and individual photon without weight; and they can maximize the contrast of tissues of
interest by retrospectively optimizing weights to the energy of interest12. In an effort to overcome the limits imposed by
current mode detectors, a number of research groups in hospitals, universities and commercial companies have tried to
develop photon counting systems for x-ray imaging applications13,14,15.
2.1 CdTe detectors
As mentioned previously, current CT systems typically use a detector comprised of Si photodiodes that are optically
coupled to a scintillator. In these detectors, the energy of an absorbed x-ray is converted to electrical charge by an
indirect method. The development our proposed photon counting CT detector makes use of direct conversion of the
energy deposited by each x-ray photon to charge and on counting each photon provided by the parallel pulse shaping
electronics for each pixel. Direct conversion with photon counting offers numerous advantages applicable in various x-
ray imaging applications. Single crystals of CdTe can effectively absorb the incoming x-ray radiation and convert it
directly into electrical signals, which can be read by an ASIC16. An absorber with bulk resistivity larger than 108 Ohm-
cm will minimize leakage current and inherent noise but can produce a large measurable signal. Thus the overall signal
to noise ratios can be significantly better than indirect detectors. Moreover, the efficiency of converting the x-ray signal
to an electrical signal (detector gain) can be an order of magnitude larger due to the basic underlying physics of the
energy transfer process in the direct detection approach. That is, the mean energy for creating an electron-hole pair in a
semiconductor detector (4.43 electron Volts per electron hole pair in CdTe) is typically an order of magnitude smaller
than the corresponding energy necessary to create an optical photon through the scintillation approach. This results
directly in an order of magnitude larger signal for the same incident X-ray with a direct detector approach. Another
important consideration is that charges generated by x-rays do not spread laterally (aside from the negligible diffusion),
but move along the applied electric field lines. Spreading of light in the indirect conversion scintillator approach that can
deteriorate spatial resolution can be compensated for by segmenting the scintillator. It also allows the construction of
thicker, more efficient detectors without any loss in resolution due to lateral spread in the detector.

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-2

The x-ray converting material (sensors used for each multi-row CT detectors are CdTe crystals with 256 pixels each
fabricated on a 1mm pitch (16 by 16 pixels). The CdTe crystals are tested in a 256 pogo-pin jig which makes an
electrical contact to each of the pixels on the anode side17. The CdTe detectors are tested on a per pixel basis for dark
current18. The dark current is typically between 1 nA and 2 nA per pixel at -1000 V. Each pixel is 1 mm by 1 mm and the
crystal is 3 mm thick. Some pixels have as much a 5 nA current and this corresponds to a total current between 1 µA and
2 µA for each CdTe crystal which is sufficiently low for good noise performance. The tested CdTe crystals are then
vertically integrated to the inputs of the ASICs19.
2.2 ASIC readout electronics
A custom designed and fabricated ASIC read-out array was developed for the CdTe x-ray detectors20. The ASIC readout
arrays contains 128 parallel channels each with a pitch of ~43,6 μm. The ASIC readout array is specially designed to
accommodate very fast photon counting21. The ASIC readout arrays are vertically integrated to the detectors within the
active which extends to the edge of the CdTe crystals. This allows tiling in two dimensions while preserving pixel pitch.
The ASIC readout arrays are tested with a needle probe card to ensure that all the channels are working. The ASIC are
testing is performed with a custom built probe station using a 98 pin Cu-Be needle card to make contact to all the readout
and I/O pads. The tested ASCIs are then mounted to a substrate printed circuit board (PCB). The substrate PCB contains
an edge connector to readout data as well as all the required passive components to power the ASICs and support
input/output (I/O) functions. Each CT detector assembly contains four 128 channel ASICs for a total of 512 channels.
There are two 256 pixels CdTe crystals per assembly so the final CT detector module contains 512 pixels.
2.3 Multi-row CT detectors
After the complete CT detector is assembled, it is tested in a lead lined cabinet with an X-ray tube. Each complete CT
detector contains four 128 channel ASICs to create a 32 row, 16 pixel detector (512 pixels). The data from each of the
ASICs is acquired with a field programmable gate array (FPGA) and a custom Labview program. Each channel in the
ASIC contains two thresholds which can be swept to evaluate the CT detectors. Figure 1 shows a completed 32 row CT
detector with a high voltage cable attached. The left side of Figure 1 is a side view (sagittal) showing 32 rows and the
right side of Figure 1 is an axial view showing 16 pixels per row. In this configuration each multi-row CT detector can
be tiled in a fan beam for clinical CT. The high voltage cable is used to supply -1000 V bias to the CdTe crystal. This
completed photon counting CT detector has 32 rows and a 1mm intrinsic spatial resolution.

Fig. 1. Pictures of a completed 32 row CT detector with a high voltage cable attached. The left side shows a sagittal view
with 32 rows and the right side shows an axial view with 16 pixels per row.

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-3

 3. RESULTS
In order to characterize the performance of the CT detector, we have included in the ASIC the ability to sweep the levels
of the upper and lower threshold and acquire data at each step. After calibration the two thresholds are fixed to generate
dual-energy X-ray projection images. At each step in the calibration threshold sweep, all the counts above the threshold
voltage (energy) are counted. A graph plotting all the counts above a threshold as a function of threshold value is called
an “S-curve” which is a function of energy S(E). In practice we sweep the thresholds from high to low to collect
calibration data. Subtracting the counts above a high energy threshold from those above a lower energy threshold gives
the number of counts between the two threshold energies therefore the derivative ∆S/∆E provides a spectrum of the input
flux for calibration. Figure 2 shows S-curves generated with the CT detector shown in Figure 1. The graph on the left in
Figure 2 shows an S-curve from X-ray tube set to 65 kVp and 1 mA at approximately 20 cm for an incident flux of about
2.5 x106 cps. The vertical line at a threshold value (pulse height) of 250 mV represents the point above which no counts
are seen without X-rays or sources are present. Below 250 mV counters fill with noise and reset when they overflow
therefore no meaningful data can be obtained below a threshold value of 250 mV. The graph on the right in Figure 2
shows several S-curve at different max kVp setting on the X-ray tube.

lllll 10000 lIt 11111 lillIllIl -- mV vs 55keV

I my vs 6OkeV
s-- mV vs 65keV
mV vs 7OkeV
-U- mVvsSOkeV
-U- mV vs 1 OOkeV
t U)
0 4 mVvsl2OkeV
10000 - I C)

U)
U)
U)
C
(-)

U)
'I0
C
0
C)

1000
1000

Ill liii 11111111 llIlllllIIIl 111111

0 200 400 600 800 1000

200 300 400 500 600 700 800
pulse height (mV)
pulse height (mV)

Fig. 2. S-curves for various input flux from an X-ray tube for clinical CT. The left side shows a graph of the number of
counts above the threshold as a function of threshold (S-curve) for an input flux from the X-ray tube set at 65 kVp and
1mA. The right side shows S-curve for several max kVp setting on the X-ray tube. Data has been taken from 30 kVp to
140 kVp which covers the range of X-rays used in clinical CT.

3.1 Energy calibration and Noise floor

In order to determine the noise floor in terms of energy the detector needs to be calibrated. This is done by counting all
the X-rays from the x-ray tube at different max kVp energies and assigning the x-rays with the highest energy to the
value of the x-ray tube voltage (max kVp). S-curves are generated from 30 kVp to 140 kVp and the preamplifier signal
is plotted as a function of energy (max kVp). Figure 3 shows a plot of the preamplifier signal (pulse height) in mV as a
function of max kVp (energy) in keV for the highest energy X-rays in the spectrum (∆S/∆E) taken at that kVp. The
energy response is linear up to 60 keV. A linear fit between 30 keV and 60 keV extrapolated to the threshold value of
250 mV (the point at which no noise is seem) gives us an approximation of the noise floor at 20 keV. Extrapolating the

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-4

line to 0 keV indicates that the preamplifier offset is less that 50 mV. All the data from 30 keV to 140 keV can be fit to a
sum of exponentials of the form;
y = y0 + a(1 – e–bx) + c(1 – e–dx) , (1)
where y is the pulse height in mV, x is the energy in keV, and y0,a,b,c,d are parameter of the fit. Once fit the equation
can be inverted to convert threshold values in to energy units (keV). The fit is shown in Figure 3 as the line which
connects all the data.

1000

900

800

700

600

°-
300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
max kVp (key)

Fig. 3. A graph of pulse height (preamplifier signal) versus energy (max kVp) for various X-ray tube setting from 30 keV to
140 keV. An extrapolation of the linear portion of the energy response (up to 60 keV) to low energy shows the noise
floor at 20 keV (250 mV pulse height above which no noise counts are seen).

3.2 Count rate performance

In addition to testing the noise floor and energy response (calibration), we also determined the maximum output count
rate of the CT detector. This measurement is performed by setting the lower threshold just above the noise and counting
all the X-rays above this energy as a function of X-ray tube current and source to detector distance. The throughput
characteristics were taken with an X--ray generator as a function of the X-ray tube anode current between 0.01 mA and 6
mA. The x-ray generator was biased to 140 kVp. Figure 4 shows the output count rate (taken from the ASIC counter) of
a typical detector pixel and its processing electronic channel with the low discriminator level threshold set at 25 keV.
The output count rate is fairy linear up to 2.5x106 cps and saturates at about 6x106 cps. A linear fit to data taken at count
rates in the range of linear response shows that the saturation in the output count rate corresponds to about 60x106 cps at
the input. By using corrections the output data can be made linear above 2.5x106 cps and by using this procedure the
useful dynamic range of the detector can be expanded. Pulse pile up or dead time losses eventually limit the upper bound
on the flux linearity of the detector and read out. The high flux rate linearity of this device extends the range for photon
counting detectors by and order of magnitude as compared to previous devices of this type. The graph on the left hand
side of Figure 4 shows the output count rate from X-ray tube currents from 0.01 mA the 6 mA with a 10 cm source to
detector distance. This corresponds to an input count rate of 1.0 x104 cps and 6.0 x107 cps. Also shown is a linear fit
from 1.0 x104 cps and 2.5 x106 cps. The graph on the right in Figure 4 shows an extrapolation of the linear fit to 6mA
indicating the maximum input count rate from the X-ray generator.

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-5

 8000 70000

-.- extrapolated linear fit (ICR)

7000 - 60000-
-i output count rate (OCR)

6000 - 50000 -

S
a . S 00
a
S
0.
U
5000 -
. 40000

S
00

4000 30000 -

00

C 20000
g 3000
0
0
2000 10000-

1000

0 I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
X-ray tube current (mA)
X-ray tube current (mA)

Fig. 4. Graphs of the output count rate (OCR) versus input count rate (ICR) as determined by acquiring data from 0.01 mA
the 6 mA with a clinical CT X-ray generator. pulse height (preamplifier signal) versus energy (max kVp) for various
X-ray tube setting from 30 keV to 140 keV.

3.3 Energy resolution

In addition to determining the noise floor and maximum output count rate, we have measured the energy resolution at 60
keV and 120 keV with 241Am and 57Co sources respectively. S-curves have been have been generated with the 241Am and
57
Co sources and differentiated to obtain spectra. Figure 5 shows differentiated S-curves as a function of threshold value
(un-calibrated) for the 241Am source (left side) and for the 57Co source (right side).

sDectrLInl 5'Co spectrum

400 1000

600
300 -
600
200-
a0 400

100 - I
S 200

0- 0
0 200 400 600 600 1 GOC 0 200 400 600 800 100c
pulse height (mV) pulse heght mV)
Fig. 5. Graphs of differentiated un-calibrated S-curves for a 10 µCi 241Am source (left side) and a 6 mCi 57Co source (right
side).

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-6

Using the relation between threshold values and energy determined previously, we can calibrate the S-curves as
functions of energy S(E) and compute the calibrated energy spectrum for both sources. Figure 6 shows calibrated spectra
for the source (left side) and for the 57Co source (right side). The peak occurs at 60 keV for the 241Am source and at 120
keV for the 57Co source as expected. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) for the 241Am peak is approximately 7
keV or 11.6%. The FWHM for the 57Co peak is approximately 35 keV or 29.1%. Although the flux from the 241Am
source is significantly less that from the x-ray tube, the fast shaping time of the ASIC and the rapid charge collection
from the CdTe detector is the same and this energy resolution it is therefore expected to be the same at high flux.
calibrated spectrum calibrated spectrim
400 1000

800 -
300

600 -
FWHMr7keV Ce

200 =
0) FWHM 35 keV
C 11.6% @60 keV 400 -
C-,
100 200 -
\ 29.1%@l2OkeV

S
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 50 ff0 50 200 250 300

energy (key) energy (key)

241 57
Fig. 6. Graphs of differentiated calibrated S-curves for a 10 µCi Am source (left side) and a 6 mCi Co source (right
side). Notice the noise increases rapidly below 20 keV.

The relatively poorer energy resolution at 120 keV as compared to 60 keV is due to a loss of resolution above 120 keV
as can be seem in the distortion of the peak above 120 keV on the right side of Figure 6. This distortion occurs as the
preamplifiers become saturated above 120 keV (see Figure 3). The degradation of energy resolution above 120 keV does
not limit performance for the dual-energy CT applications used clinically which separate the low and high energy images
below 100 keV.
For use in clinical CT, the detector system counts the x-ray photons transmitted through the patient and sorts the counts
into two energy bins. The two bins of count data are processed to produce two sets of raw data (high and low energy),
that are input to the CT reconstruction algorithm. The raw data sets are processed with a dual energy calibration
technique that enables projection space reconstruction and eliminates the beam hardening effect. The image
reconstruction generates mono-energetic equivalent CT images (with a user-selected energy) and “virtual-un-enhanced”
images where the iodine-based contrast media is identified and removed in the reconstruction process. The first clinical
trial with the prototype system was a prospective study on patients with known carotid artery disease. The study was
performed at the Rabin Medical Center in Israel and was reviewed by the hospital IRB committee. The clinical images
demonstrated the vascular and stenotic elements with good image quality, which is particularly notable in regard to the
low x-ray tube current technique used for these scans. These results demonstrated the potential use of energy information
to drastically improve clinical CT.

4. CONCLUSIONS
We have fabricated and tested novel detector array structures utilizing CdTe that have been specifically developed for
CT applications. The development of this CT detector has produced several important technological advancements.
These include the fabrication of CdTe detectors with an active area extending to the edge of the crystals (no guard rings)
which allows tiling with almost no dead space. Additionally we have developed packaging and encapsulation methods to
connect dense multi channel ASICs to the crystals and formed within the active area of the crystal to preserve tiling in
two dimensions. These detectors provide a signal response much faster than the transit time of carriers over the whole
detector thickness. At the same time the individual detector pixels exhibit good spectral performance at very short
peaking times. We have developed fast and low-noise ASIC readout electronics that are optimized for amplification and
processing of signals from CdTe detector arrays. Detector modules containing crystals and ASIC electronics were
specifically designed to fit into a CT scanner and replace conventional integrating scintillator detectors with fast and
highly efficient photon-counting and energy-dispersive detectors. A maximum output count rate of 6x106 cps per 1 mm2

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7258 725824-7

pixel in a fully functional CT detector was measured. The output count rate was linear up to 2.5x106 cps. The CT
detector demonstrated a noise floor at about 20 keV and an energy resolution of 11.9% at 60 keV.
An advantage in terms of soft tissue contrast can be obtained from these CT detectors by counting all the photons and
taking advantage of the statistical and energy information carried by the individual photons. Since the x-rays in clinical
CT systems are produced in the range of 30-140 keV, the noise level of the photon counting system should be kept
below 30 keV where there will be no loss of photons due to the electronic noise. The CT detector has shown a noise
floor at about 20 keV which is sufficiently low for this application. One advantage of photon counting is the improved
ability to see events at the low end of the scale (i.e. when there are few photons or when the x-rays have low energy). In
some cases, the increased sensitivity at low energy of these new detectors can allow significant reduction in radiation
dose to a patient, for equivalent contrast ratios as compared to those obtained by other imaging methods, such as film or
Si charge coupled device (CCD) detectors22,23. To summarize, we feel that this research has significance in that it has the
potential to significantly improve CT, which is the most widely used 3D diagnostic imaging modality used in the clinic.

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the National Institutes of Health for funding this research with the following grants numbered; 1
R43 EB008612, and 4 R44 EB008612. We would also like to thank the Norwegian Research Council for funding this
research with grant number BIA-180079/I40. Additionally, we thank the European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN) for collaborating on the development of DxRay’s fast photon counting ASIC.

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