Experiment Number: 1

Aim Of The Experiment: To study the electronics components

Apparatus and components used:

Resistors

A Multimeter

A Potentiometer

Ceramic and electrolytic Capacitors

Diodes

A wire

Transistors

An IC

Theory :

Resistor: A resistor is an important component in an electrical circuit

whose primary function is to resist the flow of the current passing through
it and creating a potential difference.

Variable resistance consists of a resistance track to change the value of

the resistance with connections at the ends and a wiper which moves along
the track allowing user to get the desired resistance value.

Potentiometer: It is a variable resistor whose resistance can be changed

by changing the spindle. The far end points are the fixed points and the
middle one is the real one.

Diodes: A diode is an electronic component, made from semiconductor

materials, that only conducts current in one direction within a specific
voltage range giving zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance
in the opposite direction. It has two terminals, one being cathode and the
other being the anode. The cathode is generally marked with a silver or
black strip for identification.
Multimeter: It is an electronic measuring instrument that has various
different measurement functions such as, measuring the voltage, current,
and resistance, frequency and can even test the diodes and the continuity of
a wire.

Ceramic Capacitors: It is an electrical component that can store and

release electrical energy. It is shaped like a disk and hence it’s also called a
disk capacitor.

Light Emitting Diode It is a type of P-N junction diode that emits light
when used in the forward bias configuration.

Transistors: it is a semiconductor device with three terminals which can

amplify or switch the flow of current. It is basically the back to back
combination of two diodes in a particular manner. The three terminals are
called the emmiter, the base and the collector.

Zener Diode It is a type of diode, which helps in regulating the voltage

fluctuation. When the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage
known as Zener voltage it allows the current flow.

Integrated Circuits: It is an electronic component that acts as a

miniaturised circuit made from a semiconducting material and other
discrete components like transistors, diodes, capacitors and resistors.

Procedures:

Measuring resistance of the given resistor through a Multimeter

1) The Multimeter was set on resistance mode.

2) The range closer to the actual value of the given resistor was set.
3) Then the black and the red probes of the multimeter were connected
to the each ends of the given resistor.
4) The reading shown on the multimeter was taken.

Measuring capacitance of a ceramic or disk capacitor

1) The given ceramic capacitors were taken and the printed values on
their disk shaped surface.
2) If there are only two digits printed on it then it is the capacitance of
the given capacitor in pF and if there are 3 digits and the third digit is
 0 then also it is the capacitance of the given capacitor in pF but if the
third digit is not 0 then it is a code where the first two digits
represent the double digit number as the mantissa and the third digit
is an exponent over 10 and the unit is Pico farad.
3) In case of an electrolytic capacitor the value was observed as printed
on its cylindrical surface and the polarised terminals were also
identified in the same way. It can also be measured with an LCR
meter)

Measuring the value of a potentiometer

1) The given potentiometer was set on a particular unknown resistance

by changing the spindle.
2) Then the black probe was connected to the middle point and the red
probe was connected to the one of the far end points.
3) The measured value was seen on the screen of multimeter and was
noted.

Determining the continuity of a wire

1) The multimeter was set on its continuity mode.

2) Then the two probes of the multimeter were connected on each ends
of the wire.
3) The continuity of the wire was confirmed by the berger sound
coming from the multimeter.
4) A fuse was also tested in the same way.

Identifying the terminals of a diode

1) A diode was taken with its marking strip indicating the anode
terminal deleted.
2) Then each of the probes of the multimeter was connected to the each
of the terminals of the multimeter.
3) When the multimeter showed a certain forward biased voltage
reading on the screen, it was determined that the terminal connected
to the black (negative) probe is the cathode and when the screen
showed an open symbol it was determined that the terminal
connected to the red probe was the cathode.
 4) In case of an LED the probes were connected to its terminal in such a
way that it glows and the terminal connected to the black probe was
determined to the cathode.

Identifying the terminals of the transistors and an IC

1) The given BC547 transistor was taken and keeping the flat surface
towards us and the legs pointing downwards the terminals are in the
order of Collector, base and emitter respectively from left to right.
2) The given SL100 transistor was taken and keeping the notch towards
the right, the terminals were identified as the left one being the
collector, the right one being the base and the middle-back one being
the emitter.
3) Considering the transistor as two diodes connected back to back the
transistors weretested in the same way as the diodes.
4) The given 741 OPAMP IC was taken and placed in such a way that the
small half-circled notch at the top was pointing towards the left and
then the legs were counted in an anticlockwise manner starting from
the bottom left one.

Observation table & calculations:

Finding the value of the given Resistor

GIVEN 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band

RESISTOR
Colour Grey Red Brown Golden
Name
Position 8 2 1 5%
Value

Calculated value: 820 ± 5% Ω

Reading from the multimeter: 824 Ω

RESISTOR- 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band

1
Colour Grey Red Yellow Golden
Name
Position 8 2 4 5%
Value

Calculated value: 82 × 10^4 ± 5% Ω

RESISTOR- 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band

2
Colour Blue Grey Orange Golden
Name
Position 6 8 3 5%
Value

Calculated value: 68 × 10^3 ± 5% Ω

RESISTOR- 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band

3
Colour Brown Black Red Golden
Name
Position 1 0 2 5%
Value
Calculated value: 10 × 10^2 ± 5% Ω

Finding the value of the given Ceramic Capacitor

Digits printed the disk capacitor’s surface= 1,0,4

Actual value according to the code = 10x104 =1.0x105 pF

Discussion and conclusion:

From the above experiment we could get familiarise with different

electrical and electronic components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors and even an IC. We also got familiarise with a multimeter and
understood its use and workings. We learned the correct ways of
measuring these components with it and understood more about them.
Precautions:

1) Lab manual should be read before handling any electrical equipment.

2) The components should be handled with proper care and according
to the instructions given by lab assistant and professor.
Ayush Anshuman Supakar [118MN0579
(S5)]

Experiment Number: 2

Aim Of The Experiment: Familiarisation with basic electronic equipment.

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Multimeter

Function Generator

Power Supply

DSO (Digital Storage Oscilloscope)

Universal Work Station

THEORY:

Multimeter

It is used to measure AC voltage, DC voltage, current, resistance, continuity

of wire and diode testing. It has two probes, one being red and the other
being black. Red probe is the positive terminal. The black probe is also
called as the ground.

DC Power Supply:

A multi-voltage DC power supply supplies DC voltage at desired values. It

has three parts like part A, part B, and part C. Out of these, part A and part B
are variable whereas part C has some fixed value of voltage that it can
provide the voltage in part A and part B, can be regulated by the knobs
provided.

Function Generator:

A function generator is an electronic test equipment used to generate

different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. It
mostly produces waveforms such as sine wave, square wave, triangular
wave, pulse wave and any arbitrary waveform for any particular amplitude
and frequency.

DSO (Digital Storage Oscilloscope):

An oscilloscope converts the input signal into a digital form that can be
processed by a computer. The digital storage oscilloscope is defined as the
oscilloscope which stores and analysis the signal digitally, i.e. in the form of
1 or 0 then display it on the screen numerically. It has two channels that
can be displayed simultaneously on its screen. It is used for displaying and
studying waveforms which itself doesn’t generate. However in some DSO
there is an internally generated waveform.

Universal Workstation

It is an equipment incorporated with multiple electronic components,

connections and features that provides the user a platform to construct
any kind of desired electronic circuits and perform almost all types of
electronic experiments.

PROCEDURES:

Digital Multimeter

1) The digital multimeter was turned on and the two probes were
connected.
2) Then with the help of the digital multimeter and its correct set up of
probes and selection of appropriate functions by pressing the right
soft keys, the unknown DC voltage, AC voltage and the resistance of a
resistor were measured. It was also used to test the diodes and the
continuity of a wire.

DSO
 1) From the inbuilt function generator in the DSO, an input signal of 5
volts and 1 khz was given to the DSO by connecting the crocodile
clips to be displayed on its screen.
2) The parameters were observed and values were noted.
3) By changing the scale the shape of the signal was altered and other
features were also explored.

Function Generator

1) The output probe of function generator was connected with input

probe (channel-1).
2) Then the corresponding frequency and voltage were set accordingly
in the Function generator.
3) Now different parameter was displayed by the DSO that were noted.
4) Then the waveform was drawn for each set of sinusoidal square and
Triangular waveform.

Universal Workstation

1) The different components and functions of the Universal workstation

were familiarised.
2) The breadboard was explained.
3) A simple resistive circuit was constructed on the breadboard using 2
1k resistors and was connected to a 5 volt power supply with some
wires. Then the current flowing through the circuit and the voltage
drop across the resistors were measured using an ammeter and a
multimeter respectively.

CONCLUSION: In this experiment we got familiarised with the functioning

of function generator, a Digital Storage Oscilloscope and a multimeter. We
understood their workings and how to operate them.
Ayush Anshuman Supakar [118MN0579 (S5)]
Experiment Number: 3

Aim Of The Experiment: To study the V-I characteristics of semiconductor

diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A Voltmeter

An Ammeter

A Power supply

A bread board

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

A silicon diode

A zener diode

A 1k Resistor

A 470 ohm resistor

THEORY:

Diode A diode is a two terminal component that conducts electric current

in only direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the
most common type today, which is a crystal of semiconductor connected to
two electric terminals.

Zener Diode: It is a type of diode, which not only allows the flow of current
in the forward direction but also in reverse direction. when the reverse
voltage reaches the breakdown voltage known as Zener voltage it allows
the current flow.

VI characteristics of zener diode: The forward characteristic of the zener

diode is similar to a normal diode whereas, In reverse biased condition, a
small reverse current flows due to minority charge carriers. On increasing
the reverse voltage, current increases. A point is reached when the junction
gets destroyed and a sharp increase in current is noticed without any
noticeable increase in reverse potential. This voltage is known as zener
voltage. The current through the device is limited by making use of external
resistance.

PROCEDURE

1. A silicon diode and a 1k resistor were connected on the bread board

and they were connected to the power supply with correct
connections.
2. An ammeter was connected in series and a voltmeter was also
connected across the diode.
3. The power supply was gradually increased and the current through
the circuit and the voltage drop across the diode were recorded from
the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. For measuring the VI characteristics of the Zener diode, the previous
circuit was left unchanged except for the 1k resistor was replaced by
the 470 ohm resistor.
5. Similar to the silicon diode the power supply was gradually changed
and the ammeter and voltmeter readings were recorded.
6. Then the Zener diode was reverse biased and the same process was
repeated.
OBSERVATION:

FOR SILICON DIODE:

Sl. No V source Vd Id
1 0.1 V 0.15V 0
2 0.2V 0.23V 0
3 0.3V 0.31V 0.002mA
4 0.4V 0.43V 0.042mA
5 0.5V 0.45V 0.065mA
6 0.6V 0.49V 0.168mA
7 0.7V 0.50V 0.195mA
8 0.8V 0.52V 0.299mA
9 0.9V 0.53V 0.397mA
10 1V 0.54V 0.472mA
11 2V 0.60V 1.463mA
12 3V 0.62V 2.397mA
13 4V 0.64V 3.415mA
14 5V 0.65V 4.433mA

For Zener diode in forward bias:-

Sl. No V source Vd Id
1 0.1 V 0.16V 0mA
2 0.2V 0.23V 0mA
3 0.3V 0.32V 0mA
4 0.4V 0.42V 0.001mA
5 0.5V 0.50V 0.007mA
6 0.6V 0.59V 0.093mA
7 0.7V 0.64V 0.103mA
8 0.8V 0.69V 0.258mA
9 0.9V 0.67V 0.485mA
10 1V 0.70V 0.651mA
11 1.5V 0.74V 1.669mA
12 2V 0.75V 2.586mA
13 3V 0.77V 4.649mA
14 4V 0.78V 6.759mA
15 5V 0.79V 8.826mA

For Zener diode in reverse bias:-

Sl no. V source (v) Vd(v) Id (mA)
1 1 1 0
2 2 2 0
3 3 3 0.03
4 4 3.7 0.250
5 5 4.1 0.912
6 6 4.3 1.691
7 7 4.43 2.643
8 8 4.49 3.555
9 9 4.50 4.508
10 10 4.56 5.478

Conclusion: From the above experiment we learned how to measure the VI

characteristics of the silicon and the Zener diode for both forward and
reverse bias.
Ayush Anshuman Supakar [118MN0579
(S5)]