Table of Content

List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... I

Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 2
Literature review ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Definition of Terms.............................................................................................................................. 3
Logistics 4.0 ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Autonomous driving ........................................................................................................................ 3
Levels of automated driving ................................................................................................................ 4
Benefits and opportunities .................................................................................................................. 5
Requirements and Barriers ................................................................................................................. 6
Platooning – Case Study of Schenker, Germany ................................................................................. 7
Discussion and Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 8
References ............................................................................................................................................... II
List of Figures
Figure 1 Missing specialists [BVL 2021] .................................................................................. 3
Figure 2 Levels of automation [Kassai 2021] ............................................................................ 4
Figure 3 Costs from MD trucks to DL trucks [Engholm, Pernestal, Kristoffersson 2020] ....... 5
Figure 4 Autonomous driving – Platooning [Schenker, 2018] .................................................. 7

I
Introduction
During the course of Industry 4.0, logistics sector must also change, and the term Logistics 4.0
is in everyone's mind. The strategy for the automation and networking of logistic processes will
always be strengthened in times of digitalization. Research and development in the field of
autonomous driving are therefore being promoted more and more. Autonomous driving has
been discussed frequently in the media in recent years, sometimes very emotionally. In
particular, the question of liability, data security and data collection are much-discussed
challenges (Maurer et al., n.d.).

The first partial automation for a vehicle, the cruise control, was invented by Ralph Teetor in
1945. However, it was not used in vehicles until 1958. Since then, research and development
for partial automation and autonomous driving has been continuously promoted. One of the
reasons for this is the increasing digitalization of our world. Car manufacturers are constantly
developing new assistance systems to support the driver and, in some cases, to ensure greater
safety on the roads (Maurer et al., n.d.). Driverless cars are still a very rare picture on public
roads and often cars are partially automated e.g., lane-keeping assistant and cruise control. In
logistics there is a variety of fully automated warehouses, but also a mixture of conventional
warehouses with people and forklifts exist and additionally with Automated Guided Vehicle
Systems (AGVS) and driverless transport systems. Due to the growing shortage of skilled
workers, automated solutions are urgently needed. Logistics service providers were asked
which specialists are missing in their companies. Looking at the results in figure 1, the greatest
shortage of drivers and delivery drivers’ peaks at 50.5%. Also 47.1% of IT professionals and
dispatchers are missing. Furthermore, it is noticeable that the deficit of warehouse employees
and sales representatives is over 37%. Autonomous driving can be a solution to reduce the
shortage of skilled workers in some professions, such as drivers and delivery drivers,
dispatchers, and warehouse staff. Replacing all humans within the value stream is unlikely, as
developments are still in the testing phases and autonomous driving will not be widely available
in the next few years (BVL, 2017). Moreover, the first legal adjustments were made in the
Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. However, a comprehensive framework has not yet been
defined by policymakers. In particular, the question of liability, data security and data collection
are much-discussed challenges (Maurer et al., n.d.).
Figure 1 Missing specialists [BVL 2021]

Literature review
Definition of Terms
In the following chapter different important terms will be described for a better understanding
during the work.

Logistics 4.0
In the term of Industry 4.0, the digital solutions to make the flow of businesses and processes
easier increases significantly. Seeing the changes of the last decades it becomes clear that
logistic got a great importance for businesses and supply chains in general. Accordingly,
central goals of the industrial revolution of Industry 4.0 cannot be achieved without adapted
logistics. Due to the main characteristics like networking, decentralization, real-time
capability or service orientation, Logistics 4.0 might act as an enabler to overcome future
barriers of Industry 4.0 (Fraunhofer IML, 2021). In a more holistic way, logistics 4.0 is the
transformation from hardware-based logistics to software-based logistics. Winkhaus and
Grosse (2020) summarize as follows: “Logistics 4.0 is the logistical system that enables the
sustainable satisfaction of individualized customer demands without an increase in costs and
supports this development in industry and trade using digital technologies” (Winkelhaus and
Grosse, 2020, p. 3).
Autonomous driving
The word “autonomous” combines the two Greek words “autos” (self, personal, independent)
and “nomos” (human order, laws made by people). Also, “autos” is a part of the word
automobile. Automobiles were the first cars with combustion engines which humans used to
move without horses. For the first time were independent in a special way (Maurer et al.,
n.d.). The German automobile supplier ZF Friedrichshafen describes autonomous driving as
self-driving vehicles or transport systems moving without a human driver (ZF, n.d.).

Levels of automated driving

The standard J3016, published by SAE International (Society of Automotive Engineers), offers
a taxonomy about the development levels of automated driving, presented in five stages
(Shuttleworth, 2019). This taxonomy is worldwide accepted and adopted by manufacturers and
scientists. As seen in figure 2, the first level 0 serves as the point of start. Level 0 means non-
automation and is often ignored since it does not include automation (Bosch, 2021). Figure 2
shows the automation increase during the different levels.

Figure 2 Levels of automation [Kassai 2021]

As reported by SAE, the first 3 levels of automation are driver supported. The last 3 levels show
automated driving. Looking at the different features, level 1 provides brake or steering support
to the driver (ABS). The next level 2 adds one or more functions to support the driver.
Summarized for the first three levels it is necessary to constantly supervise the supporting
features. That changes in the last 3 levels. Taking a closer look on level 3 the driver still must
sit in “the driver’s seat” and only just acts when the feature requests this. In this, as well as in
the next level the installed features can drive the vehicle under limited conditions. A good
example for a SAE level 3 automation is a traffic jam chauffeur. The last two levels are very
similar, even if level 4 has some limitations and cannot drive autonomous in all conditions.
Level 4 might be used for local driverless taxis, whereas SAE level 5 is a feature that can drive
autonomous under all conditions (SAE International, 2021).
Benefits and opportunities
As already mentioned above, autonomous driving and especially self-driving trucks have a
great opportunity to solve the problem of missing lorry drivers. Germany has a lack of 60.000
lorry driver per year, simultaneously around 30.000 driver retiring every year. The additional
demand for new drivers cannot be covered by the new drivers starting each year. This lack
might be reduced or even eliminated by the implementation of autonomous trucks (Fraunhofer,
n.d.; Iml, 2018). Furthermore, it is expected that the use of driverless trucks (at least level 4 of
automation) reduces the costs significantly. Figure 3 shows the significant reduction of costs
per 1000tkm by using driverless trucks (DL) compared to manual driven trucks (MD). The
elimination of driver costs become very striking by exploring the different graphics whereas
the other costs stay stable or decrease slightly.

Figure 3 Costs from MD trucks to DL trucks [Engholm, Pernestal, Kristoffersson 2020]

In addition to the monetary factors, Zang et al. (2019) assume a lower accident rate due to better
reactions on different road and traffic conditions through various types of sensors, control
systems and processors. In detail due to the fact, that more than 75% of accidents in Germany
are due to human errors (Destatis, 2021), the technological solution of driver-less vehicles may
be assumed to reduce accidents and injury rates by 50% (Fagnant and Kockelman, 2015).
Besides the technical advantages, the DL trucks are supposed to avoid road accidents related to
drugs, fatigue, etc (Zhang et al., 2019). Moreover, autonomous vehicles could increase the traffic
flow significantly. Due to a higher average speed, less inter-vehicle gaps and less unreasonable
human driving actions, congestions might be reduced drastically. Stern et al. (2018) assume
that even for few mobile actuators (< 5%) it is feasible to improve the traffic flow long before
the most vehicle drives autonomous (Stern et al., 2018). It must be mentioned, that many of the
aspects to reduce traffic congestion depend on the networking between the different
autonomous vehicles and between the communication of vehicle and infrastructure (Fagnant
and Kockelman, 2015). Another important point is the increasing fuel economy using self-
driving trucks. It is estimated that self-driving trucks could reduce the need of fuel by 10-15%,
what leads to less costs and simultaneous less environmental pollution (Fagnant and
Kockelman, 2015).

Requirements and Barriers

While autonomous trucks present a several advantages and opportunities, there are still
requirements and barriers postponing the implementation of AV. Even if this work is based on
autonomous trucks, most limitations and barriers are related to automated vehicles in general.
Fagnant and Kockelmann (2015) mention that the implementation of a largely AV system
depends on 3 different aspects: Purchasing costs, state and federal licensing and liability
requirements. Furthermore, security risks might also influence the implementation strongly.
Looking at the purchasing costs first, autonomous Trucks (level 3 – 5) will have high acquisition
costs in the beginning what obviously lowers the ROI and leads logistic companies to stay out
of the AV business until mass customizing might lower those costs (Fagnant and Kockelman,
2015). In addition, the legal situation for driving autonomous is different depending on the
country. The US is the leading country in case of adopting laws and regulations to open the
door for autonomous driving, whereas the EU is lagging (Schreurs and Steuwer, 2015). Even if
the required technology will be ready in time, there might be a lack of a legal framework and
appropriate infrastructure in the EU (Martini, 2013). Taking a closer view on the German
market, different institutes invest in the development of technologies, but due to the “Vienna
convention on road traffic” the legal situation still requires a driver for taking control of the
vehicle at any time (Henkel et al., 2016) The law was further developed with the supplement
of UN/ECE Regulation R 79 for steering systems in 2014. The supplement allows correction
interventions, but no automated steering at speeds above 10km/h. This is an opportunity for the
park and stop-and-go assistance. Due to the empirical data on tests in the USA, the Vienna
convention Road Traffic in Vienna later created a base of legislation of autonomous driving if
it is possible for the driver to switch off the autonomous functions anytime (Schreurs and
Steuwer, 2015). The Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure revealed that the
aim is to deploy autonomous driving functions in regular operations by 2022 (BMVI, 2021).
Besides the legal aspect of licensing, the liability in case of accidents or damages is also not
clear yet. German lawyers Lenz and Nimmesgern (2016) assume that the vehicle manufacturers
and parts suppliers might be the potential claimants. The prerequisite in this is that the vehicle
does not offer the safety the traffic justifiably expects (Lenz and Nimmesger, 2016). Even if the
“vision zero” (eliminating traffic facilities) is the aim of autonomous vehicles until 2050
(Schreurs and Steuwer, 2015), it cannot be guaranteed, especially not within the first years of
implementation. The question arises as to whether more safety is to be expected from an
automatic system than from a human driver who would not have been able to avoid the accident
in the same situation if he had behaved as expected by traffic. On the other hand, it might be
the case that the vehicle owner and his insurance is liable. In principle, the vehicle owner is
already liable because he uses the vehicle on his own account and has the actual power of
disposal that such use presupposes, whether he – like the driver – takes part in traffic himself is
irrelevant. Finally, both possibilities are just assumptions, and it may will be different. Car
manufacturer VOLVO for example announced its intention to assume full liability in the future
in the event of accidents involving its self-driving vehicles (Lenz and Nimmesger, 2016).

Platooning – Case Study of Schenker, Germany

Even if autonomous driving is not used on public roads yet, platooning is already in use for a
few pilot projects. Following, this work describes the use of platooning in case of the German
transport company DB Schenker. Platooning describes a system in which two or more trucks
driving in a convoy supported by different technical devices of automation. An important point
is that all trucks driving in the convoy use vehicle-to-vehicle communication, so the first truck
drives ahead and through digital communication the others follow automatically (see Figure 4)
(DB Schenker, 2018) .

Figure 4 Autonomous driving – Platooning [Schenker, 2018]

In 2018, DB Schenker in cooperation with MAN Truck & Bus and Fresenius University of
Applied Sciences used the first networked truck convoy driving on the A9 in Germany. Even
though in all the trucks include a driver, just the first one must act manually. Due to the fact,
that the used MAN trucks proved to be robust, the convoy-drivers just had to act once on
2000km. In particular, the truck platoon started near Munich via A9 to Nuremberg. MAN
Trucks (2019) identified the five major benefits of this pilot project:

- More space on the motorways through less space between the different trucks
- less fuel consumption due to the slipstream effect
- greater safety
- and a new aura of prestige for the platoon drivers.

Furthermore, the implementation of the Platooning technology might be an enabler for further
automation trucks (MAN Trucks, 2019).

After 35.000km of platoon driving the results were evaluated and it became clear that the use
of truck platoons can ensure more efficient use of space on motorways, less congestion and
greater road safety. In particular, the trucks were able to reduce fuel consumption up to 4%
what also leads to a reduced consumption of CO2 Emission. In addition, Fresenius analyzed
the psychosocial and neurophysiological effects of the drivers and mentions that they always
felt safe and trustful in the used technology. Besides that, the EEG measurements do not show
any systematic differences in the neurophysiological stress of the drivers, i.e., in terms of
concentration or fatigue, between the platooning and normal truck driving.

All in all, the project of platooning-system has delivered very good results. Due to the fact, that
98% of the track drove automatically, it is a great measure that the technology of autonomous
truck driving is already working (DB Schenker, 2019).

Discussion and Conclusion

The study demonstrated the benefits of autonomous vehicles especially in case of autonomous
truck in the logistics sector. Furthermore, the barriers and requirements for an implementation
in the future were mentioned and analyzed.

Taking a closer look on autonomous driving in general, it might have a huge impact on driving
security and could help the term of “vision zero” to be fulfilled. To achieve this until 2050 it
requires a clear legal and liability regulation what currently is not developed and delays the
implementation strongly. By announcing a full liability in case of accidents, car manufacturer
VOLVO did a step to override this barrier. Furthermore, the costs – especially in the logistics
sector – plays a huge role for the customer acceptance of autonomous trucks. Making a
driverless truck affordable requires a high mass customization, which is not given yet and leads
to high acquisition costs. Relating the acquisition costs to the decreasing variable costs like
driver or fuel, it might compensate the high acquisition invests. Additionally, the
implementation of driverless and communicating trucks and cars could reduce traffic
congestions and due to that and the lower fuel requirements it might reduce the environmental
pollution.

In conclusion the biggest barrier to achieve the different benefits of autonomous driving is the
legal inconsistency in most countries including Germany. Even if the Vienna Convention
already made a step forward by changing the European laws, it is still not finalized and there is
no clear framework. If the legal framework is published until 2022 as the German Federal
Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure assumes, the technology of autonomous driving
could have a great impact on environment, traffic, and costs aspects not only in logistics, as
also in private sectors.
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