Type of investigation:

1. Correlation is a statistical measure (expressed as a number) that describes the size and
direction of a relationship between two or more variables. A correlation between
variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the
cause of the change in the values of the other variable.
Example: (e.g. smoking is correlated with alcoholism, but it does not cause alcoholism)
2. Causation indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other event; i.e.
there is a causal relationship between the two events. This is also referred to as cause
and effect.
Example: (e.g. smoking causes an increase in the risk of developing lung cancer)

 The Time Dimension/ tym horizon:

Cross Sectional Study: a study based on observations representing a single point in time; a
cross section of a population. Example-The amount of people who registered to vote
Longitudinal Study: a study based on data that is collected at several different times. Example-
The Tuskegee Experiment

 There are three types of longitudinal studies:

o Trend Study: A type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some
population is monitored over time. Example: The series of Gallup Polls showing the
electorate's preferences for political campaign, even though different samples were
interviewed at each point
o Cohort Study: A study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over
time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of
observations. Example: A study on the occupational history of the class of 1970 in which
questionnaires were sent every five years
o Panel Study: A type of longitudinal study, in which data are collected from the same set
of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time

 Longitudinal studies do not always provide a feasible or practical means of studying

processes that take place over time. Sometimes cross sectional-data can be used