Language, Power and Ideology

Author(s): Tariq Rahman

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 44/45 (Nov. 2-15, 2002), pp. 4556-4560
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412816 .
Accessed: 10/10/2013 02:33

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Economic and Political Weekly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Language, Power
Language has been intimately related to ideology and power in Pakistan. While Urdu is
conspicuous as a symbol of Pakistani identity and national integration, other ethnic groups
have seen this as a version of internal colonialism. Indigenous languages thus become
tools that serve to assert ethnic identity and ensure a wider mobilisation.
akistanis a multilingualstate with
many ethnic groups. The official
languageof thestateis English.Urdu
is the nationallanguagealthoughit is the
mothertongueof the Mohajirs,who form
only 7.6 per cent of the population.The
Mohajirsare the Muslimswho had emi-
gratedfromIndiawhenPakistancameinto
existence in 1947.
Theethnicminoritieshaveresentedthe
power and statusthat has been given to
Englishand Urdu.The use of Englishas
a languageof communication hasfavoured
the westernisedelite. The use of other
languageswouldhavegivenpowertoother
candidates.Theelitegroupsandtheethnic
minoritieshave used languageto define
theiridentitiesandfurthertheirideologi-
cal aims.
Therehavebeena numberof language-
basedethnicmovementsinPakistan'sshort
history [Rahman 1996]. The Bengali
LanguageMovementof 1948-52 in East
Pakistanfuelledtheemergenceof Bengali
ethno-nationalism, which led to the cre-
ation of Bangladeshand the breakupof
Pakistanin 1971.Therewereriotsbetween
the Urdu-speaking Mohajirs and the
Sindhi speakersin Sindh province be-
tween January1971 and July 1972. The
ethnictensionbetweenthe Mohajirsand
theSin4hishasgrownsincethemid-1980s,
when the Mohajir Qaumi Movement
(MQM) became a militant force to be
reckonedwith.
Whenthe Bengalilanguagemovement
began to challenge the West Pakistani
dominationof the formerEast Pakistan,
the peopleandthe pressin West Pakistan
thoughtthatthiswastheworkof theHindus,
thecommunistsandtheanti-stateelements
who wantedto destabilisethe state. The
WestPakistaniintelligentsiabelievedthat
the Sindhi,Pashtun,Bengali and Baloch
ethno-nationalism duringthe Ayub Khan
era (1958-1969)was due to the fact that
these ethnicpeople were bornwith fixed
identities.This was the reason why the
Punjabis,Pathans,Sindhis and Balochis
4556
This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM
and Ideology
TARIQ RAHMAN
could not become modern enough to just as nationalistidentities were con-
identify with Pakistanas a whole. structedin Europeusing collective sym-
Seriousstudiesonethnicityhaveemerged bols, like standardised printlanguages,as
onlyrecently.Oneof thefirstattemptswas BenedictAnderson(1983) has argued.
TahirAmin's studyof the ethno-national Apartfromtheroleof languagein iden-
movementsof Pakistan.Aminused mod- tity construction,thereis the issue of its
ern theories of ethnicityto explain that use in education.Shemeem Abbas has
ethno-nationalmovementsare the pro- writtenaboutthe strongpresenceof En-
ductsof the demandfor a just share in glish in educationand in other domains
goodsandservicesina modemstate[Amin [Abbas 1993]. SabihaMasroorhas done
1988]. However, Amin's reference to a surveyon the Punjabistudents'attitude
languagewas inadequateandincomplete. towards languagesand found that they
Later,Feroz Ahmed, a Sindhi left-wing rankedEnglishhighest,Urdusecondand
intellectual,wroteseveralarticleson the theirmothertongue,Punjabi,last[Masroor
Mohajir,PashtunandSindhinationalism, 1993]. In additionto the above works,
which were later published as a book therehavebeensomestudieson theteach-
[Ahmed1998].He wroteon the language ing of English [Malik 1996] and on the
riots in Sindh but refusedto accept the useof Urdu,bothformallyandinformally,
Mohajirsas an ethnic'group. He couldnot outsidePakistan[Javed1996]. However,
give an objective account of the ethnic therehasnotbeenmuchscholarlyresearch
identity-construction in the light of the on the relationshipbetween language,
latesttheoriesonthesubject[forwhich see power and ideology. This paper is an
HutchinanandSmith1996].M S Korejo's attemptto fill that gap.
recent study of G M Syed, the leading
Sindhinationalistleader,also fails to go Background
beyondrhetoricwheretheMohajiridentity
is concernedandbringsno freshevidence The last census in Pakistanwas held in
on theroleof theSindhilanguagetowards March 1998 but its resultsare yet to be
Sindhiethnicidentityformationor asser- published. The census figures that are
tion [Korejo2000]. The role of language availableare of 1981. A questionasked
in ethnicmovementshashardlybeenstud- in thatcensus was: which is the language
ied. Anwarand Afia Dil, a husbandand thatwas 'commonlyspokenin the house-
wife team, publishedtheirhistoryof the hold'?ItwasfoundthatPunjabiwasspoken
BengaliLanguageMovementonlyin2000 by 48.17 percentof the people,Pashtoby
[Dil andDil 2000]. Unlikeanyotherbook 13.14 per cent, Sindhiby 11.77 per cent,
in Pakistan,this book provideshistorical Siraikiby 9.83 percent, Urduby 7.60 per
details and draws on Bengali literature cent, Balochiby 3.02.percent, Hindkoby
but is short on theoreticalinsights into 2.43 percent andBrahviby 1.21percent.
identity-formation and ethnicity. Otherlanguageswerespokenby 2.81 per
The presentwriter's book, Language cent. The 'other' includes more that 50
and Politics in Pakistan (1996), presents languagesor dialects, most of them un-
an analysisof the role of languagein the written,which are given in Annexure.
ethnicmovements ofPakistanandconcludes The census does not mentionEnglish,
thatlanguagebecomesan identitysymbol ArabicandPersian.ButEnglishis thekey
whendifferentethnicgroupscompetefor to power and employment in the state
power and resources.Easy communica- and privatesectors.Thereareno reliable
tion facilitatesthe manipulationof group figuresfor the numberof peoplewho use
identitieson the basis of religionor lan- English.The 1961Censusgave the figure
guage. Ethnic identitiesare constructed as 2.7 per cent of the population[Census
Economicand Political Weekly November2-9, 2002
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
1961:IV,30-32].If thosewhohavepassed
theirmatriculation examination,in which
Englishis a compulsorysubject,arecon-
sideredto be literatein English,then the
figurecomesto 19.56percent in the 1981
[Census 1981: Table 4.6, p 31]. This
percentagewould have gone up by now
because the middle class or, ratherthe
'salariat'asdefinedbyHamzaAlavi(1987)
- has expanded.However,most matricu-
latesfromvernacular schoolscannotspeak
English and can barely read their text-
books,whichtheytendtomemorise.People
fluentinEnglishcouldhardlybemorethan
3 to 4 percent of the population.Urduis
muchmorewidely used. Not only are 20
percentof thematriculates quiteproficient
in it, but also the studentsof religious
seminaries,soldiersandilliterateworking
class people in cities pick it up and use
it quitewell. Urduhas also spreadwidely
becauseit is usedin inter-provincialcom-
munication,entertainment, media(news-
papers,radioandTV)and,aboveall,lower
middle-classjobs all overPakistanexcept
in ruralSindh.
Onlya handfulof peoplein thereligious
seminariesanda few scholarsof Islamand
Arabic understandArabic. Although,
Muslimslearnto readtheQuran(the 1981
Censusreportedthat18.37percentof the
people read it [Census 1981:Table4.7,
p 33], theirknowledgeis mostly limited
to the recognitionof Arabicletters.They
are not taughtthe meaningsof words.A
few expertsunderstandPersian.Students
in certainexaminationsleading to state
employmenttakeit as an easy optionbut
most neverget beyondthe memorisation
of a few passages.
Important indigenousmothertonguesof
the people,like Punjabi,are not taughtat
all. Somearetaughtinadequately.Pashto,
for example,is the mediumof instruction
up to class five in some schools and an
optionalsubjectat the higherlevels. The
others,for instanceSindhi in Sindh, are
taughtonly in certainareas.However,the
people do learnthese languageson their
own becausebooks on them, called the
chapbooks,are availablein all the major
cities of Pakistan.WilliamHanaway,an
Americanscholar,andMumtazNasirhave
listed 940 chapbooksin Punjabi,Siraiki,
Hindko,Khowar,Pashto,Sindhi,Persian
andUrdu[HanawayandNasir1996].Films
and songs in these languages,especially
inPunjabiandPashto,arequitepopulartoo.
The elite English-mediumschools are
so expensiveas to exclude lower middle
and workingclass pupils.The Urduand
Economicand PoliticalWeekly November2-9, 2002
This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM
Sindhi-medium in Indiain the 19thcentury.It was highly
schools,as well as thefew
schools where Pashtois the mediumof Persianisedas described by Amrit Rai
instructionat the lower levels, arerunby(1984) and used in the lower domainsof
the stateandarequiteaffordablefor most power- administration, judiciary,educa-
Pakistanis.Evenmoreaffordable,because tion and commerce- in the centres of
they providenot only free educationbut Muslimpower,especiallytheUnitedProv-
also free board and lodging, are the inces. In time, partlybecauseof the com-
'madrasas'(religiousseminaries),which petitionfor jobs and power betweenthe
havecentralbodiesto examinestudentsin MuslimandHindu'salariats',Urducame
UrduandArabic.Themadrasasin Pashto- to be identifiedwith the Muslimidentity
speakingareasuse Pashtoas the medium whileHindiwas identifiedwiththeHindu
of instructionwhile those in the Sindhi-identity [King 1994]. The Urdu-Hindi
speaking parts of Sindh use Sindhi. In controversyof the 19thand20thcenturies
PunjabandBalochistan,whereUrduis the was reallypartof the powerstrugglebet-
formalmediumof instruction,theteachers ween the Hindusand the Muslimsin un-
often explain in the local language. dividedIndia[Rahman1996:Chapter 4].
No dataon the numberof schools and As the controversyitself has been de-
theirmediumof instruction is available.The
scribed in great detail [Brass 1974:119-
following the tableis based on the partial
181; Gupta1970; Kerrin1972], we need
informationaboutsomeprovincesandthe not go into it here.It has been mentioned
assumptionthatall ordinarystateschools in orderto makethe point thatUrduwas
in Punjab,AzadKashmir,Balochistanand a partof the ideology of Muslimseparat-
theNorth-West FrontierProvinceuseUrdu ism in Indiaand was laterprojectedas a
as the mediumof instruction. majorsymbolof nationalintegrationin the
Therearean indeterminable numberofnew countryof Pakistan.Urducameto be
madrasas.The press puts the figure at associatedwiththehegemonyof thecentre
6,761 (Nawa-i-Waqt, October1999)while in Pakistan.As the PunjabisandMohajirs
thegovernment sourcesstillquotethefigure
controlledthe militaryand the bureau-
of 3,906 from1995[Directory1995:282]. cracy in the country,the people of East
As mentionedearlier,the madrasaspre- Bengal,Sindh,BalochistanandtheNWFP
serveArabicmoreas a symbolof Islamic also perceived that the Punjabis were
identitythan a living language.Most of dominatingthem.
theirgraduatescannotfunctionin Arabic The ethnic groups in these provinces
[Rahman1999] and use Urdu. In fact, reactedbyconsolidatingtheiridentities,of
Urdu has spread through the madrasa whichlanguagewasanimportant part.The
network ever since the 19th century strongest assertionof this was the Bhasha
[Metcalf1982]andis nowassociatedwith Ondolan,the Bengali LanguageMove-
Islam and the Muslim identity in both ment of 1948 and 1951. The movement
Pakistanand India [Rahman1999]. itself hasbeendescribedelsewhere[Alam
1991;Umar1970]andneednotdetainus.
Language and Power: Ethnic The importantpoint is that the state's
Dimensions ideologywaschallengedandlanguagewas
the symbolused for the mobilisationof a
Althoughthe Britishfirst taughtUrdu counterideology of ethnic assertion.Al-
becameanidentity thoughthe languagemovementitself was
formally,this'language
symbolof the elite Muslims(the 'ashraf) diffusedby 1955, it resonatedthroughout
Table: Number of Language Medium Schools in Pakistan
Punjab Islamabad NWFP Sindh Balochistan Azad FANA Federal Total
Kashmir Govern-
ment
UrduMedium 67,490 368 13,556 3,657 9,939 6,009 1,370 167 102,556
SindhiMedium nil nil nil 36,750 nil nil nil nil 36,750
Pashto Medium
(up to class V only) nil nil 10.731 nil nil nil nil nil' 10,731
MixedMedium No nil nil 1,394 nil nil nil nil 1,394
Information
(nil)
EnglishMedium nil 48 nil 95 nil nil nil 82 225
Total 67,490 416 24,287 41,896 9.939 6,009 1,370 249 151,656
Source: Sindh:SEMIS,1998; Punjab:EMIS,1998. Allotherfiguresare fromthe Academyof Educational
Planningand Management,Islamabad, 1999. Figures for the Federal Governmentinclude
schools in military(or cantonment)areas for which the source is the Directorateof Federal
GovernmentInstitutions,Rawalpindi.
4557
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
the whole period of united Pakistan.It
symbolisedthe antagonismagainstWest
Pakistan,whichfinallyculminatedin the
creationof Bangladesh.
The state'sideologyof usingIslamand
Urdu as symbols of integrationdid not
changeevenaftertheloss of EastPakistan
thoughPakistanihistoriansnowadmitthat
this policy was wrongly adaptedin the
easternwing [Zaheer1996].
The Sindhilanguagemovementin re-
actionto the perceiveddominationby the
Urdu-supporting ruling elite caused the
Urdu-Sindhi riots in Sindh between
January1971andJuly1972[Rahman1996:
Chapter7]. Only the Pashto language
movementdecreasedin intensitybecause
the Pashtunsextended their trade and
transportation networksall over Pakistan
andenteredthesalariat,especiallythearmy,
in fairly large numbers.Yet the Awami
NationalPartyshowsits resentmentof the
Punjabidominationby maintainingits
separatePashtunidentityof whichPashto
is a part.It keeps alive the demandfor
teachingPashtoandgiving it moreimpor-
tance [Rahman1996:Chapter 8].
The Siraikilanguagemovement,prob-
ably a responseto underdevelopmentin
southern Punjab, is not powerful and
confinedto theintelligentsia of thisregion.
However,as thestatehasdescribedSiraiki
as the languageof the region,the people
intheareaalsoidentifywithit now.Earlier,
they usedto identifywith theirown local
languages,like 'Multani','Derewali'and
'Riasati',etc. The Siraikimovementpro-
vides insights into the phenomenonof
identityformation,when local identities,
suchas MultaniorRiasati,get mergedinto
the larger ethnic identity, Siraiki [see
Shackle1977;Rahman1996:Chapter10].
Theotherlanguagemovements,although
small, are also responses to the state
ideology of using Urdu as a symbol of
Pakistani identity. For instance, in
Balochistan,the Balochiand Brahvilan-
guagesandtheresistanceliteraturewritten
in them are seen as a response to the
dominanceof Urdu, the Punjabiruling
elite, andthe Urdu-basedMughlaiculture
of northIndia[Rahman1996:Chapter 9].
Evenin Punjab,muchmalignedthoughit
is by activistsof all ethnic movements,
thereis a smallmovementto give impor-
tance to Punjabi.The movementis con-
finedtoa smallintellectualcircleof Lahore
and a few other Punjabicities. Some of
these intellectualsargue that the state,
thoughdominatedby the Punjabis,uses
the languagesof the elite, English and
4558
This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM
Urdu,to acquirepowerthroughemploy- nationalismand militarism.Islam is co-
ment.Urduis also patronisedin orderto optedin theserviceof thestatein a process
consolidate the elite's control over the describedby JamalMalik,who in another
federalunitsof thecountry.Theyfeel that context has writtenaboutthe 'coloniali-
this is a heavya priceto payfor maintain- sationof Islam'[Malik1996].Islamis made
ing Punjabihegemony[Mirza 1994]. to supportnationalism,of which milita-
rismis the chief expression.Accordingto
Language and some analysts,the lessons on militarism
Individual Empowerment glorify war, particularlythose between
PakistanandIndiain 1948, 1965and1971.
If one cannotwritein UrduandEnglish, The heroesof these wars are celebrated.
one cannot get even clerical jobs in The purposeof this indoctrinationis to
Pakistan,exceptin Sindh.If one canwrite create supportfor the state's militaristic
in Urdubut not in English,one can get anti-India policies[Saigol1995].Ithasalso
lowerjobsin all theprovincesof Pakistan. been pointedout that the textbookssup-
Higherjobs, however, are reservedfor portthe male-dominated, hierarchicaland
those who fluent in English. power-orientedsociety in Pakistan(ibid).
Forthe armedforcesandstatefunction- A numberof people,notablyK K Aziz
aries,thestatehascreatedaparallelsystem (1993), have looked at the ideological
of education in which the medium of messages in history and social studies
instructionis Englishfor all subjectsand, textbooks.During his researchin 1998,
in some cases, all science subjects.The this writerfoundthatthereis also a high
armed forces run schools throughtheir ideological componentin the language-
welfare organisationssuch as the Fauji teachingtextbooksfor classes one to 10.
Foundation(Army),the BahriaFounda- The ideological content in the Arabic
tion (Navy) and the ShaheenFoundation languagebooks is 71 per cent; in Urdu,
(Air Force).Some stateinstitutions,such 40 per cent; in Pashto,43 per cent; in
as therailways,thecustoms,thetelephone Persian,31 percent;in Sindhi,29 percent
and telegraphas well as the police, also and in English, 8 per cent.
run their own schools. Urduhas been used as an Islamiclan-
There are chains of privateexpensive guage since the colonial period,when it
English-medium schoolsliketheFroebels, was adopted by the religious scholars
the Beaconhouse and the City School ('ulemas')andthe clergymen('maulvis')
System. Here the tuition fees range be- to disseminateIslam[Metcalf1982].It is
tween Rs 1,500 to 3,500 per month.The thelanguageof examination atthemadrasas
more wealthypeople send theirchildren of differentsects, like the Deobandis,the
to the InternationalAmerican school, Barelvis,the Ahl-i-Hadithand the Shias
which charges over US $ 10,000 per [Nayyar1998;Rahman1999:Chapter 5].
academicyear. It is also the languageof some of the most
The peoplego throughgreathardships reactionarynewspapersthatincitepeople
to provideEnglishmediumeducationfor to fight in Kashmir,struggleagainstthe
theirchildren.Thereare schools all over perceivedwesterndominationor support
the countrythatclaimto teachin English. Islamic fundamentalism.
They chargebetweenRs 50 to Rs 1,000
per month and provideeducationof so Linguistic Responses
variablea qualitythatit defies classifica- to Modernity
tion. A numberof religiousorganisations
too now runsuch schools.They claim to The Britishinterventioncreateda new
combine Islamic studies with skills in kindof literaturein UrduandSindhi.The
modem subjectsand English. Victorian British administratorscon-
demnedthemedievaltextsthatwereerotic.
Language, Textbooks and The Indian reformers,includingsecular
Ideology writerslike AltafHasanHali(1837-1914)
and ulemas such as Ashraf Ali Thanvi,
That languagecontainsan ideological madethelanguageandliterature evenmore
baggageis wellknown[Whorf1956].This, puritanical.
however,is notbeingexploredhere.What In Pakistan,this trend has led to the
I wouldliketopointoutis thatthetextbooks devaluationof the indigenouslanguages
on history, social studies and Pakistan andtheirpre-modern, worldviews.
agrarian
studiesin alllanguagesareusedin Pakistan Yet the people have not abandonedthese
to give ideological messages on Islam, languages. Thiswriterhasseen manuscripts
Economic and Political Weekly November 2-9, 2002
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
or printedversionsof books in Punjabi, Annexure
Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi and Brahvi in Language OtherNames WhereSpoken Speakers
librariesand privatecollections in En-
Balti Baltistani,Sbalti, Baltistan 27,000-300,000
glandandPakistan.Thesebooksareabout Purki(a varietyof Balti) (in 1992)
theProphet,theteachingsof Islamandthe Badeshi Bishigram(SwatKohistan) Not known
ritualsof cleanlinessand so on. Some of Bagri Bagria,Bagris, Sindh(nomadicbetween 200,000.
themarealsoaboutlegendarylove affairs, Baorias,Bahgri Indiaand Pakistan (in 1993)
like that of Heer and Ranjha. Bashgali EasternKativiri Gobar,Rumbur 3,700- 5,100
Valley(Chitral)
Conclusion Bateri IndusKohistan -30,000
Bhatneri NorthEasternTraces Unconfirmed
Languagehasbeenintimatelyrelatedto Burushaski Billum,Kunjut, Hunza,Nagar,Yasin 55,000- 60,000
Khajuna Valleys (NorthernAreas) (in 1981)
ideologyandpowerin Pakistan.The state Chilisso 1600-3000
has lookeduponUrduas a symbolof the Chiliss,Galos Koli,Palas, Jalkot
IndusKohistan
Pakistaniidentityandnationalintegration. Dameli Gudoji,Damia, DamelValley 2000 - 5000
Most ethnic groupshave counteredthis Dameoli,Damel (SouthernChitral) (in 1992)
versionof internalcolonialism.Theethnic Domaaki Domaski,Doma Mominabad(Hunza 500 plus
eliteshaveusedtheirindigenouslanguages and Nagar) (in 1989)
toasserttheiridentitiesandmobilisepeople. Dogri Punjabi,Pahari Azad Kashmir 1 million?
The nationalists, led by the Punjabis, Dehwari Deghwari Kalat,Mastung 10,000
maintainthatthis is againstthe ideology (CentralBaluchistan) (in 1987)
of Pakistan. Dhatki Dhati 100,000 plus
Tharparkar,Sanghar
Language also defines the socio- (Sindh) (in 1987)
economicclassdividein Pakistan.English Gujari Gujari,Gojri,Gogri Swat, Dir,Northern 200,000-
is associatedwith the upper and upper KashmirGujuri,Gujuri Areas, Azad Kashmir 300,000
Rajasthani (in 1992)
middleclasses,Urduwith the middleand
lowermiddleclasses andthe local, indig- Gujrati Gujarati Karachi,otherparts Not known
Sindh (44,000,000
enous languageswith the peasantry,un- Inthe world)
skilledlabourersandthe workingclasses. GawarBati Narsati,Narisati, SouthernChitral,Arandu 1300- 2000
However,in Sindh,thereareareaswhere Gowari,Arandui, Kunarriveralong (in 1992)
Sindhiis usedformally.InSindhandparts Satre, Gowar-Bati Pakistan-Afghanistan
Border
of thePashto-speaking belt,thelocalpride Gowro Gabaro,GabarKhel IndusKohistan 1,000
is strongenough to counterUrdu. (differentfromGawri) (on the eastern bank, 2,000
InPakistan,Englishis seenas thecarrier Mahrinvillage) (in 1990)
of western,liberalvaluesand Urduas an Hazargi Hazara,Hezareh, Quetta 70,000
IslamicandPakistani-nationalist Hezare'i (in 1993)
language.
The indigenouslanguagesare associated Kalkoti None reported DirKthistan 4,000
with ethnic nationalism and identity. (in 1990)
However,English is being appropriated Kashmiri Keshur Kashmirand diaspora 105,000
by the Islamicrevivalistsand the under- (in 1993)
privilegedPakistanigroups, who recog- Kati Bashgali,Kativiri, (Chitral)Gobar 3,700-5,100
nise it as a languageof employmentand Nuristani LinkahValleys (in 1992)
[13 Kamviri Shekhani,Kamoleshi. Chitral(southernend 1,500 - 2,000
empowerment. Kamik
Lamertiviri, of Bashgal Valley) (in 1992)
Khetrani None reported North-eastBalochistan Few Thousand
Addressfor correspondence:
(in 1987)
dr.trahman
@sat.net.pk Kalasha KalashValleys 2,900 - 5,700
Bashgali,Kalashwar,
Urtsuniwar, (Chitral)southern (in 1992)
References Kalashamon,Kalash
Kohistani IndusKohistani; IndusKohistanWest 22,000
Abbas, Shemeem (1993): 'The Power of English Kalami;DirKohistani, bankof river, (in 1993)
in Pakistan',WorldEnglishes,12: 2, pp 147-56. Kohiste,Khili,Maiyon;
Ahmed, Feroz (1998): Ethnicityand Politics in Maiya,Shuthun,Mair.
Pakistan, Oxford University Press (OUP), Koli Kachi,Kori,Kuchikoci (LowerSindh)around 80,000 -
Karachi. Towns of Tando 100,000
Alam, Shamsul (1991): 'Language as Political Allahyarand TandoJam (in 1995)
Articulation:East Bengal in 1952', Journal
KoliTharadari Tharadari LowerTharDesert 30,000
of ContemporaryAsia, 21; 4, pp 469-87. (in 1980)
Alavi, Hamza (1987): 'Politics of Ethnicity in Kalami Kalam(Swat)
India and Pakistan', Originally published in Bashgharik, 60,000-
DirKohistani,
Bashkarik, DirKohistan 70,000
PakistanProgressive, 9: 1 (Summer),quoted Diri,Kohistana,Dirwali, (in 1995)
from H Alavi and John Harris (eds) (1989), KalamiKohistani]Gouri,
Sociology of Developing Countries, pp 222- Kohistani,Bashkari,
46, Macmillan Education, London. Gawri,Garwi
Amin, Tahir (1988): Ethno-NationalMovements
of Pakistan: Domestic and International (Contd)

Economic and Political Weekly November 2-9, 2002 4559

This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Annexure (Contd) Hutchinson, John and Anthony D Smith (eds)
(1996): Ethnicity,OUP,OxfordandNew York.
Language OtherNames WhereSpoken Speakers IslamicEducationResearchCell (1995): Pakistani
Khowar Chitrali,qashqari, Chitral,Northern Deeni Madrasas Ki Directory (The Directory
222,800
Patu, Kohwar, Areas, Ushu in (in of Religious Seminariesin Pakistan)'Islamic
Arniya, 1993)
.Kashkara NorthernSwar Education Research Cell, Ministry of
Education, Islamabad.
Majhi Punjabi LahoreDistrict Unknown. Javed, Inamul Haq (1996): Baerooni Mamalik
Refugees from Mein Urdu (Urdu in Foreign Countries),
IndiaPunjab
MuqtadraQau'miZaban, Islamabad.
Marwari Rajasthani,Meghwar, South Punjabnorth 50,000 Kerrin, Dittmer (1972): Die Indischen Muslims
(northern) Jaiselmer,Marawar of Daduand Nawabshah (in 1992) unddie Hindi-UrduKontroversein den United
Marwari Rajasthani,Meghwar, Sindhhand southern 50,000 Provinces Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz.
(southern) Jaiselmer,Marawar Punjab (in 1992) Khan, Said Ghulam Hossein (1789): The Seir
Lasi Lassi Las Bela District few thousand Mutagherin (History of India), trans. from
(South-eastBalochistan) Persianby Tota Manusin 4 volumes,reprinted
Orrpuri Buraki,Bargista Kaniguram(South 10,000-40,000 by Sheikh MubarakAli, Oriental Publishers
Waziristan)some and Booksellers (19750, Lahore.
in Afghanistan King, ChristopherR (1994): One Language, Two
Od Odki Scatteredin Sindhand 30,000- Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth
South Punjab Century North India, OUP, Bombay.
50,000 (in 1986)
Korejo, M S (2000): G M Syed: An Analysis of
Parkari Koli Negar Parkartown 150,000 - his Political Perspectives, OUP, Karachi.
Tharparkar 250,000 Malik, Farida (1996): The Teaching of English
(southeasternSindh) (in 1995) in Pakistan, Vanguard Press, Lahore.
Persian Farsi;Madaglashti Balochistan,Shishikoh 1,001,400 Malik,Jamal(1996): TheColonialisationof slam:
Persianin Chitral Valleyin Chitral (in 1992) Dissolution of Traditional Institutions in
Dari,Tajik,.Badakhshi Quetta,Peshawar,etc Pakistan,'Vanguard Press, Lahore.
Pashai 5,000 Mansoor,Sabiha (1993): Punjabi, Urdu, English
in Pakistan: A Socio-linguistic Study,
Phalura Dangarik,Ashreti, 7 villages near Drosh, 8,600
Chitralpossibly 1 village (in 1990) VanguardPress, Lahore.
Tangiri,Palula,Biyori, Metacalf, Barbara (1982): Islamic Revival in
Phalulo in Dir,Kohistan
British India: Deoband, 1860-1900, repr by
Sansi None reported North-westernSindh Unknown Royal Book Company, 1989, Karachi.
Shina Sina, Shinaki Gilgit,Kohistan, 500,000 Mirza, Shafqat(1994): 'PakistanWich Man Boli
Baltistan Laher' (The Mother Tongue Movement in
Torwali Kohistani,Bahrain Bahran(Swat) 60,000 Pakistan), interview by Maqsood Saqib in
Kohistani Maan Boli, January 1994.
Turkmen Nayyar,A H ( 1998): 'MadrasaEducation- Frozen
Turkic Refugees in Pakistan scattered in Time' in Pervez Hoodbhoy(ed), Education
Ushojo Upperpartof Bishigram Kohistan 2000 and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan,
(Ushuji) Valleyin Swat (12 villages) (in 1992) pp 215-50, OUP, Karachi.
Uyghur Ugur,Ughir Near the Chinese few hundred Rahman,Tariq (1996): Languageand Politics in
Border,Scattered Pakistan, OUP, Karachi.
- (1996): 'Language-Teaching in Pakistani
Uzbek Turkic Refugees in Pakistan 50,000 (in 1993) Madrassas' in Rahman 1999, Chapter 5.
Vaghri VaghriKoli Sindh 2,000 plus -(1999): Language,Educationand Culture,OUP.
Wadiyara Koli,Wadaria Northof Matliand 75,000 - (1999): 'The Politics of Urduin India',Journal
Jamesabad (in 1980) of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies,
Wanetsi Harnai of Vol XXII, No 2 (Winter), pp 38-60.
Tarino,Chalgari (East Quetta) 90,000 - (1999): 'Decline of Persian in British India',
(in 1992)
South Asia, Vol XXII, No 2, June, pp 47-62.
Rai, Amrit (1984): A House Divided: The Origin
Wakhi Kheek;Kheekwar Northernends of 7,500 - and Developmentof Hindi-Urdu,OUP, 1991,
Wakhani,Wakhigi, Hunzaand Chitral 10,000 (in 1981) Delhi.
Wakhan
Saigol, Rubina (1995): Knowledgeand Identity:
Yidgha Yidghah,Lutkuhwar UpperLutkohValley 5,000 - 6,000 Articulation of Gender in Educational Dis-
(WesternChitral) (in 1991) course in Pakistan,ASR Publications,Lahore.
SEMIS (1998): Sindhh Education Management
InformationSystem, Governmentof Sindhh,
Factors,Instituteof Policy Studies,Islamabad. EMIS(1998):EducationManagementInformation Karachi.
Anderson,Benedict(1983): ImaginedCommuni- System, Punjab, Governmentof the Punjab, Shackle,Christopher(1977):'Siraiki:A Language
ties: Reflectionson the Origin and Spread of Lahore. Movementin Pakistan',ModernAsianStudies,
Nationalism,Verso (reprintededition), 1991, Faruqi, Rahman (1998): 'Unprivileged Power: 11; 3, pp 379-403.
London. The Strange Case of Persian (and Urdu) in Sheerani, Hafiz Mahmood(1934): 'PunjabMein
Aziz, K K (1993): The Murder of History in Nineteenth-Century India',TheAnnualof Urdu Urdu Ki SarguzashtKa Aik FaramoshShuda
Pakistan, VanguardPress, Lahore. Studies, No. 13: 3-30. Varq'(A forgottenchapterof the storyof Urdu
Brass, Paul R (1974): Language, Religion and Gellner,Ernest(1988): Plough, Swordand Book: in Punjab)inSheeraniMazharMahmood(eds),
Politics in NorthIndia,CambridgeUniversity The Structure of Human History, Collins Muqalat-e-HafizSheerani, Majlis Taraqqi-e-
Press, Cambridge. Harvill, London. Adab, 1966, pp 117-45, Lahore.
Census (1981): Handbookof Population Census Gupta,JyotirindraDas (1970): LanguageConflict Umar, Badruddin(1970): Purba Banglar Bhasha
Data, Population Census Organisation, and National Development: Group Politics Ondolan-o-Tatkalin Rajniti(BengaliLanguage
Statistics Division, Governmentof Pakistan, and National Language, University of Movement of East Bengal and contemporary
1984, Islamabad. California Press, Berkely and London. politicsof the time), vol 1, reved, 1989,Dacca.
- (1961): Census of Pakistan, 1961; Pakistan: Hanaway, William and Mumtaz Nasir (1996): Whorf,BenjaminLee (1956): Language,Thought
Populations,Tablesand Reports,Ministryof 'ChapbookPublishingin Pakistan'in William and Reality, Corroll,John B Cambridge(ed),
Home and KashmirAffairs, Karachi. Hanaway and Wilma Heston (eds) (1996), MIT Press, Massachusetts.
Dil, AnwarandAfia Dil (2000): BengaliLanguage Studiesin PakistaniPopular Culture,pp 343- Zaheer, Hasan (1996): The Separation of East
Movementto Bangladesh,Ferozsons,Lahore. 437, Sang-i-Meel, Lahore. Pakistan, OUP, Karachi.

4560 Economic and Political Weekly November 2-9, 2002

This content downloaded from 128.197.27.9 on Thu, 10 Oct 2013 02:33:55 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions