Loan Words in the Morphology of Tiv Language

BY
DYAKO AONDONGUTER LEO
Department of Languages and Linguistics
Benue State University, Makurdi – Nigeria
dyakoleo@gmail.com, 08131136937, 07060528267
Abstract

Morphological description of Loan Words is found in so many languages, this study focused
on the loan words in the morphology of Tiv language. There seems to be diversities in word
formation in English borrowing: for instance, English nouns have different ways of forming
their plurals. This happens because of the numerous foreign words that exist in the language.
This may not necessarily be the case with Tiv language. This process indicates the sound
change of words of Tiv language loaned from English that are different from the rules of
sound changes to form Standard English. For instance, Icefish loaned from English is
pronounce as “afiishi” in Tiv, therefore, the morphological structure of English plural of ice
fish remain the same unlike in Tiv language where it is realized as “Mbaafiishi”, also, table in
English language is pronounce as” tebul” in Tiv and its English plural is tables whereas Tiv
realization of the plural Morpheme “tables” is pronounce as “Utebul”. To be specific, the
study examined; the word formation processes applied on Tiv loan words from English. The
study adopted a descriptive approach. The data sources were both primary and secondary.
The primary data was collected through self developed interview guide. The instruments
employed in this study were interview guide, note book and pen. The study adopted
Descriptive Linguistics Theory. Morphological process of Tiv loan words from English is
characterized with change in spelling and the pronunciation, though the sound remains
relatively the same; the morphological description of Tiv loan words from the English
language only make use of prefixation inflectional allomorphs such as “u” “a” and “mba” for
pluralisation where as the English plural morpheme make use of suffixation. It also revealed
that derivational inflections are very rare using morphologica description of Tiv loan words
from the English language. The study contributed significantly to knowledge in that, studies
have been done on morphosyntactics but not on loan words in the morphology of Tiv
Language as done by the researcher in Tiv loan words from English.

Keywords: Loan words, Morphology, Tiv language, and English language.

1
Introduction
Spoken language is purely a human activity. It is central to human life. Without
language, there will be no interaction, no social activities and no communication. Language
is a phenomenon which is dynamic and creative: it changes with time and creates room for
expansion and adaptation of new words and ideas. Since no language is isolated, no language
is entirely free from linguistic borrowing. Speakers borrow words from other languages to fill
gaps in their own lexical inventory. The reasons for such lexical gaps may be: cultural
innovation may introduce objects or actions that do not have a name in the native language,
native words may be felt as non-prestigious and be substituted by a term from another
language, names of foreign cities, political figures, institutions, etc., which were once
unknown may have become popular through the media; new words may be introduced for
play, etc.
The interaction between people of different cultures and languages bring about
language borrowing of lexical entities known as loan words. A loan word can be said to be a
foreign word from a particular linguistic community which has being adopted into the
linguistic system of another community through contact in which case, Tiv language is not an
exception, they also have borrowed from other languages such as English for instance, words
such as: tebul, kompyuta, cementu, yunivasiti are loaned from English.
It is obvious that when languages come in contact, a variety of phenomena take place
among which are bilingualism, borrowing, code-switching and code-mixing. A study of loan
words therefore gives information on the inter-cultural exchange between languages. This
work is based on morphological description of Tiv loan words from English.
Tiv language during its early period of growth and development had a lot of contacts
with other languages like the: Bafum, the Hausa, Fulani, The Jukun, Chamba and the Kuteb.
These contact were as a result of trade and migration, and these languages have had
considerable influence on the development of the Tiv language. Tiv language has borrowed
intensively from the English language which has now formed a large part of its lexicon.
It has been seen from the above that other researchers have carried out similar studies
on how linguistic borrowing enhances language vitality with particular reference to Tiv
language (Usar, 2013) there is no evidence of such studies on morphological description of
Tiv loan words to the knowledge of the researcher. Such studies were also carried out in
areas outside variables under study thereby leaving a gap for this research.

2
Basic Linguistic Information on Tiv
The name Tiv language is a language spoken by the Tiv people, who form majority of
the population in Benue State and also indigenous in other states of Nasarawa, Plateau,
Taraba and Cross River and also located in other states of Kaduna, Lagos, Kano, Niger and
Abuja in Nigeria. The language is spoken by a population of over 3 million people and it is as
old as the people themselves.

Tiv people occupy fourteen local government areas out of the twenty three local
government areas in Benue State representing 61% (percent). The local government areas
occupied by Tiv people in Benue include-: Buruku, Gboko, Guma, Gwer, Gwer-West,
Katsina-Ala, Konshisha, Kwande, Logo, Makurdi, Tarka, Vandeikya, Ukum, and Ushongo.
These local government areas are gotten from the two sons of Tiv: Icongo and Ipusu who are
also divided into the following old clans and districts: Kparev, Shitile, Ukum, Tongov,
Masev, Iharev, Nongov, Ikurav, Ugondo and Turan. Tiv people are also found in large
numbers in Nasarawa and Taraba states. They are equally found in good number in Plateau
and Cross-River States Anshi (2004).

Genetic Family Classification

Tiv Language belongs to the Benue-Congo language family which is an offshoot of
the Niger-Congo language family (Udu 2009:1). This is confirmed by Orjime (2004: 2) in
quotation of Armstrong (1964) who states that “Tiv is Benue-Congo Language of the Niger-
Congo family.” The diagram below shows this family. Tiv Language is the language spoken
by Tiv people of mainly Benue State origin and other states like Nasarawa, Taraba, Plateau
and Cross River. The speakers of the language in Benue state alone are over three million
representing over sixty percent of the state population. An internet source, www.scribd.com
asserts that Tiv language is spoken by about six million people in Nigeria with few speakers
in Cameroon. This view is supported by Udu (2009:1) but Udu notes the number of Tiv in
Cameroon to be significant. On the whole, Tiv language is indeed a majority language among
the minority groups in Nigeria.
Morphology
According to Dobrovolsky and Aronoff (1997:401), the Linguistic of morphology is
the study of word structure. It seeks to characterize the system of categories and rules
involved in word formation and interpretation. The psycholinguistic study of morphological
processing seeks to understand how this word structure plays a role in language processing.

3
According to Dobrovolsky and Aronoff (1997:230), rules that account for alternations among
allomorphs (morphophonemic alternations) are called morphophonemic rules.
In traditional grammar, words are the basic units of analysis. Grammarians classify
words according to parts of speech and identify and list the forms that words can be grouped.
Word – formation, as Marchand (1969) says, is “that branch of the sciences of language
which studies the pattern on which a language forms new lexical units”. Rufa’i (1979:1) adds
that “it thus deals with formally and semantically analyzable composite forms”. According to
Matthews (1991: 37), “word – formation is that branch of morphology which deals with
relations between a complex lexeme and a simple (r) lexeme”. For Rubba (2004), “word –
formation processes deal with the ways of creating new words in English”. The free
encyclopedia of linguistics (2008) maintains that word – formation rules form “new words”
(that is, lexemes). Based on what has been said so far, it is pertinent to mention that word –
formation is concerned not only with the issues of creating new words and their rules, but
also the relationship that exists between the words (simple and complex), as posits Matthews
(1991). Thus, word – formation deals with the processes in which languages tend to involve
themselves in forming new words. Word formation may be defined as a set of processes for
the creation of new words on the basis of existing ones. Word-formation, therefore, is a
natural linguistic phenomenon that exists not only in English or Tiv but in all the living
languages of the world.
There exist several processes of word-formation, but this paper focuses on affixation
(prefixation) and reduplication.
Prefixations
Prefixation comes from the word “prefix”. A prefix is a bound morpheme that comes
before the root, stem or base. In other words, it appears at the front of a stem. A prefix adds
meaning to a root without altering its class. Elson and Pickett (1976: 12) define prefixes as
“the affixes which occur preceding roots”. Agezi (2004: 40) sees a prefix as ‘an affix which
is added initially to a stem.’ Thus, prefixation refers to a process whereby an affix is added
initially to a stem. In other words, prefixation is a sub-process of affixation in which
morphemes known as prefixes are added before the “operands” (bases, roots, stems). Quirk et
al (1973: 442) divide the prefixes in English into: Reversative prefixes, Pejorative prefixes,
Prefixes of degree or size, Prefixes of attitude, Locative prefixes, Prefixes of time and order,
Number prefixes and Conversion prefixes.

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Loan Words
Loanwords which are sometimes regarded as borrowed words are words adopted by
the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). According to
Crystal (2008, p.286) a ‘loan’ is a linguistic unit (usually a lexical item) which has come to
be used in a language or dialect other than the one where it originated. It says further that
several types of loan process has been recognized, such as loan words (where both form and
meaning are borrowed, or assimilated with adaptation to the phonological system of the new
language; loan blends, loan shifts and loan translations. Mathews (2007:230) describes a loan
word as a word imported by borrowing from another language. Such words are sometimes
adapted directly to fit the sound patterns of the borrowing language. Linguistic borrowing,
Loan words, loan adaption, words assimilation or acclimatization, stolen words and phrase,
etc. are all terms variously applied to this popular linguistic phenomenon. Word borrowing as
stated earlier is a common feature of almost all human languages in that nearly all languages
have some new words, phrase or even sentence imported from other languages into them.
Tiv Loan Words from English
This study shows that there are a large number of English loanwords in Tiv. Words
denoting mostly household items, clothing, means of transportation, school materials etc.
have been loaned into the Tiv language. These words in the Tiv vocabulary were originally
English and did not come into the lexicon through any buffer languages. These words are
loaned into the Tiv language directly from the English language, they include the following:

Tiv Loan Word English Gloss Tiv Loan Word English Gloss
Pilo Pillow Siketi Skirt
Biro Biro Sheti Shirt
Orshoja Soldier Bulosu blouse
Tica Teacher Bokoti Bucket
Toci Touch Koopu Cup
Televishen Television Peleti Plate
Fan Fan Afiishi Ice-fish
Yunivasiti University Abom Album
Cementu Cement Adreshi Address
Redio Radio AJanda
Firiji Fridge Agenda
Foto photograph Eakondishena Air
conditioner

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 Tiv Loan Word English Gloss Tiv Loan Word English Gloss

Durum Drum Ciaman Chairman

Ijiga Digger Diakon Deacon
Belakaboodu Black board Dikishenali Dictionary
Deseke School desk Tapirata Typewriter
Doseta Duster Inki Ink
Pensel Pencil Buroshi Brush
Dosebin Dust bin Shingil Singlet
Koboodu Cupboard Shebul Shovel
Bol Ball Beredi Bread
Wiibaro Wheelbarrow Mongoo Mango
Pikov Pick up van Fiidi Field
Turokoto Tractor Galeeji Garage
Paseto Pastor Gomenti Government
Loya Lawyer Wusul Whistle

Theoretical framework
Linguists generally formulated theories that account for loanword adaptations using
internal morphological description of the borrowing language only. This study considers a
theory and variation between adaptation strategies in human languages.
Descriptive Linguistics
Linguistics has always required a process called description, which involves
observing language and creating conceptual categories for it without establishing rules of
language. The 16th and 17th centuries, in which the modern linguistics began to project,
provided the basis for the 18th and 19th centuries comparative works – mainly on classical
languages. By the early 20th century, this focus shifted to modern language as the descriptive
approach of analyzing speech and writing became more formal. The reason for this prior
hood is that linguistics, as any other branch of science requires observation and analysis of a
natural phenomenon, such as the order of words in communication, which may be done
without prescriptive rules. In descriptive linguistics, nonstandard varieties of language are
held to be no more or less correct than standard varieties. Whether observational methods are
seen to be more objective than prescriptive methods, the outcomes of using prescriptive
methods are also subject to description.
The descriptive approach, therefore, simply recognizes that the forms exist, observes
the differences and similarities between them, and describes the uniformity of linguistic
phenomena in human languages. The descriptive approach is still applied in analyzing many

6
of the world recognized languages. This research applies the descriptive approach of Nida’s
(1946) six principles of descriptive statements. In addition, Carl’s (1996) model of
descriptive linguistic analysis has also been used in this research work.
Empirical Review
Yusuf (2017) studied morphophonological analysis of nouns borrowed by Kiswahili
and Hausa from Arabic. The study was a morphophonological analysis of some nouns
borrowed by Hausa and Kiswahili from Arabic. The source of data for the research used was
written literature. Informants who are native speakers of Hausa and Kiswahili speakers had
also been used to supplement or justify the data generated; the study narrowed itself on nouns
only, a hundred (100) loanwords were collected and analyzed within the framework of the
Optimality Theory (OT) which accounts for loanword adaptations using internal phonological
grammar of the borrowing language only. The presentation of the data analysis of the
research was based on loanword adaptation in the two languages that depends on three repairs
that is vowel epenthesis, consonant deletion, and feature change respectively. The analyses
revealed that in dealing with disallowed codas and consonant clusters, three main strategies:
insertion, deletion and feature change were applied in order to satisfy highly-ranked
markedness constraint in Hausa and Kiswahili. In a few examples, however, faithfulness
prevails over markedness, leading to change in the phonology of Hausa and Kiswahili. The
findings of research have implications on the expansion and growth of the two languages as
the research discusses phonological and morphological modification of which loanword
makes languages develop their vocabulary. Finally, the research endeavored to show that
morphophonology is involved in the adaptation of Hausa and Kiswahili from Arabic.

Nopriansah (2016) in a related study on the morphophonemic process of words

borrowed from English in Serawai language. The study explained the morphophonemic
process of words borrowed from English in Serawai language. The scope of the analysis is in
phonological and morphological level. This research is a descriptive study. The procedures
are data collection, data analysis, and presenting the results of analysis. The data were
collected by using observational methods. The results of the study shows (1) the kinds of
morphological process that cause morphophonemic process in words of Serawai language
that are borrowed from English, namely affixation and reduplication; (2) the kinds of
morphophonemic process that emerge in the morphological process of the aforementioned
words, namely epenthesis, paragog, aphaeresis, syncope, apocope, metathesis, cluster
reduction, haplology, palatalization, monophthongization, and other phonemic changes,
developed phoneme/vocoid, fusion, incorporation, lost of vowel, and incorporation-

7
assimilation at the same time; (3) the formulas of the morphophonemic process. The
researcher concludes that the words of Serawai language that are borrowed from English
have the same morphological system as Serawai language has and the system is different
from what English has. Whereas, the morphophonemic process emerges in the process of
borrowing and in its morphological process.

Ubong (2012) studied morphophonemic Analysis of Inflectional Morphemes in

English and Ibibio Nouns: Implications for Linguistic Studies. The study basically attempts a
morphophonemic analysis of inflectional morphemes of nouns in two structurally and
historically distinct languages (English and Ibibio) in order to discover points of differences
and similarities using the Contrastive Analysis (CA) model of investigation as its theoretical
framework. The results indicate that the two languages are structurally different. For instance,
Ibibio is agglutinative, tonal and analytic in nature while English is basically analytic and
intonational. The study, analyzes the problem that the Ibibio speaker of English is likely to
encounter in the study of the English word structure.
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive approach to analyze morphological description of Tiv
loanwords. The study was carried out in Benue State Tiv speaking area. The headquarter is
Makurdi. Study areas were randomly selected for this research to ensure fair representation
of Tiv land and to avoid experimental bias. The study covered selected areas which include
Lobi in Ushongo Local Government Area, Adikpo in Kwande Local Government Area, Ugba
in Logo Local Government Area, and Adaka in Gwer West Local Government Area and
Gboko Local Government Area.
The study made use of both the primary and secondary sources of data collection. The
primary data for the study was sourced from Tiv native speakers in Benue State with a bias to
the elderly, the academics and the clergy (from N.K.S.T. denomination) through interview
and recording using pen and paper. The secondary data for the study was sourced from both
published and unpublished works on the study of the grammar of language in general, those
on specific areas in the study of particular languages and those on the study of Tiv language
and culture. Such materials were; textbooks, journals, thesis and internet published works.

LOAN WORDS IN TIV

Words borrowed into the Tiv language from the English language are grouped into various
lexical and phonemic categories. These are seen below:

8
Grouping of Loan Words According to Approximate Sound Change
Tiv adopted Gloss
Bol /bol/ Ball /bɔːl/
Drom /drɔm/ Drum  /drʌm/
Bikon /bikon/ Beacon /ˈ biːkən /
Daari /dɑːri/ Diary /ˈdaɪə.ri/
Redio /redio/ Radio /radiɔ/
Koop /kɔːp/ Cup /kʌp/
In the grouping of the words above, it could be deduced that, some of the English loaned
words in Tiv have approximate sound change as illustrated above. For example the word
Ball: /a/ has changed to /o/ in Tiv, Drum: this could be seen in this illustration /drʌm/ the
consonant /ʌ/ has change to a vowel /ɔ/ as /drɔm/ in Tiv adopted. This could also be seen in
examples such as Beacon: the English gloss /biːkən / the long vowel /i:/ has changed to shot
vowel /i/ in Tiv adopted while the vowel /ə/ has change to /o/ in Tiv adopted as seen from the
grouping. The word Diary has trithongs as /ˈdaɪə.ri/ while Tiv adopted the trithongs /aɪə/ has
changed to long monothong / ɑː/ as in /dɑːri/.
Grouping of Loan Words According to those that take Additional Morphemes
Tiv adopted Gloss
Baaji / bɑːdʒi/ Barge /bɑːdʒ/
Caaji /tʃɑːdʒi/ Charge /tʃɑːdʒ/
Inki /inki/ Ink  /ɪŋk/
Fiidi /fi:di/ Field  /fiːld/
Tochi /tɔtʃi/ Torch /tɔ:tʃ/
Bokoti /bokoti/ Buckit /ˈbʌk·ɪt/
Cuoku /tʃɔːku/ Chalk  /tʃɔːk/
English loan words in Tiv can be grouped based on those that take additional morphemes as
illustrated thus: the English loan word barge /bɑːdʒ/ has an additional morpheme /i/ in Tiv
adopted as in Baaji / bɑːdʒi/ also the word Charge /tʃɑːdʒ/ takes an additional morpheme /i/
as shown in Tiv adopted Caaji /tʃɑːdʒi/. This could be seen in several other examples such
as: Ink  /ɪŋk/ Tiv adopted Inki /inki/, Chalk  /tʃɔːk/ Tiv adopted Cuoku /tʃɔːku/.
Word Formation by prefixation
It is clear that every language makes use of inflectional morphemes to arrive at a
plural marking, though the process varies from language to language. In Tiv for example the
inflectional marking is derived at the left boundaries That is, prefix + root using ‘ u ’ ‘ a ’ ‘ i

9
’ ‘ m ’ ‘mba’ but in English the case is different, the inflectional is at the right boundaries of
the root word that is, root + suffix ‘ s ’ ‘ s’ ‘ er ’ ‘ est ’ ‘s-3 rd person singular’ ‘ ing ’ ‘ en ’
respectively. It was observed that Tiv language makes use of inflections to show number as
shown below. It was also revealed that most of the inflections are nouns having prefix
attached to the left of the stem. And to the knowledge of the researcher these inflections are
limited to only three of the five inflectional morpheme – ‘ u ’ ‘ a ’ ‘mba’ where the other two
of inflectional morpheme (‘ i ’ ‘ m ’) seems to be scarce among Tiv loan words from
English.
Prefix + Base/Root = Gloss
A Pilo Apilo Pillows
Biro Abiro Biros
Orshoja Ashoja Soldiers
Tica Atica Teachers
U Toci utoci Torch
Televishen Utelevishen Televisions
Fan Ufan Fans
Yunivasiti Uyunivasiti Universities
Cementu ucementu Cements
Firiji Ufirigi fridges
Foto Ufoto Photographs
Siketi Usiketi Skirts
Bulosu ubulosu Blouses
Mba Afiishi Mbafiishi Icefish
Abom mbaabom Albums
Adreshi mbaadreshi Address
AJanda Mbaajanda Agendas
As can be observed above, word formation process of Tiv loan words from English is
characterized with change in spelling and the pronunciation though the sound remains
relatively the same. Furthermore, when forming plurals of such words, it was observed that
most of the loan words are formed using prefix such as ‘a’ ‘u’ and ‘mba’.
For example, the word “Pilo” loan from an English word “Pillow”; the pronunciation
remains the same, however, the spelling changes. And when forming its plural form both the
pronunciation and spelling changes thus: ‘apilo’ change as a result of the pre-fixation ‘a’

10
 Also, the word “televishon” loan from an English word “Television”; the
pronunciation remains the same, however, the spelling changes. And when forming its plural
form both the pronunciation and spelling changes thus: ‘Utelevishon’ change as a result of
the pre-fixation ‘u’
Similarly, the word “abom” loan from an English word “Album”; the pronunciation
remains the same, however, the spelling changes. And when forming its plural form both the
pronunciation and spelling changes thus: ‘mba-abom’ change as a result of the pre-fixation
‘mba’
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study the following conclusions were drawn; word
formation process of Tiv loan words from English is characterized with change in spelling
and pronunciation though the sound remained relatively same in most cases. All the plural
loan words are formed using prefix such as ‘u’ ‘a’ and ‘mba’. Tiv loan words morphological
processes do not occur exactly the same way as those of English. Plural morpheme in Tiv
loan words is realized as /-a/, /-u/ and /-mba/ given different morphological environment of
the stem; plural morpheme gets attached to the left boundary (prefix + base) of a morpheme.
In Tiv language, the inflectional morphemes includes: ‘u ’ ‘ a ’ ‘ i ’ ‘ m ’ ‘mba’. Tiv
language makes use of inflections to show number as shown in the above Tiv loan words
most of the inflections are nouns having prefix attached to the left of the stem.
The researcher observed that, since so much study needed to be covered in the area of
language, the researcher does not claim to have covered all the topics on morphology of Tiv
loan words in English Language. Therefore, this work had given rise to further studies for
any researcher who felt challenge to confirm or expand on the findings of this study to show
how rich our indigenous language called Tiv can be promoted to meet the desired result of
using for official purposes both academically, socially, economically, politically,
educationally and otherwise.
The research established how Tiv loan words from English language based on change
in spelling and pronunciation though the sound remains relatively same in most cases, that is
sound and sound change and meaning and meaning change in that, when forming plurals of
such words, it was observed that most of the loan words are formed using prefix such as ‘u’
‘a’ and ‘mba’. However, understanding other basic areas of word formation processes were
left out with pre-fix like’ coinage, duplication clipping and inflectional respectively. There is
need to expand on this by other researchers so as to enhance revitalization and
standardization of Tiv Loan words for language development.

11
 In the discipline of morphology, this study shows how morphological factors affect
each other usually at morpheme boundaries involving separate phonemes. Morphological
properties of English or any other language for that matter are of great importance in order to
analyze other linguistic properties of that language. Therefore, there is need to explore
morphological process of Tiv loan words from other languages like Hausa for an enhance and
wider understanding of morphological factors affecting Tiv loan words.
The extent that the Tiv language is being eroded by the large number of items being
loan from English language, the language is under some form of threat. On the other hand, as
a result of the enhancement of communicative competence in the Tiv language owing to the
loaning from English, Tiv, language is itself enhanced and revitalized.

12
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