Tone In Tiv Non-segmental Phonology

BY
DYAKO AONDONGUTER LEO
Department of Languages and Linguistics
Benue State University, Makurdi – Nigeria
dyakoleo@gmail.com, 08131136937, 07060528267

ABSTRACT

Languages are different and every human language has its own phonology. In the process of
learning a language, (L2) or acquiring a language, meaning is attached to its pitch , tone, stress
and intonation. This is due to variation of every human language. Learning a new language
successfully would also involve knowing the pitch and the tone pattern and sound system of the
language in question. This research work aims at bringing to the fore the various tone patterns
and meaning in Tiv language. Inspired by the desire to contribute to knowledge and literature as
well as bridge the large gap in unavailability of research materials on this aspect of the Tiv
language, the objectives of the study are to: identify tones in the Tiv language, analyze the
functions of tone in Tiv communication, analyze the patterns of tone formation in Tiv. The study
adopted the theory of Generative phonology/phonological rules, propounded by Chomsky in
1968. The source of data for the study is secondary sources of data collection. The study found
out that there are significant changes that occur in the articulation of words/phrases, with
different grammatical categories of those words/phrases and meaning, based on the tone level
(high, mid or low). The study also pointed out the importance of tone, as it is very key in the
understanding of the Tiv language. Tone differentiate word meaning and class in some instance,
thereby enlarging the size of Tiv vocabulary. The study also identified tones in the Tiv language
to include: High (H), Mid (M) and low (L). The study collected and presented for analysis a
large number of words, from which the researcher identified those words that change meaning
and grammatical class as a result of the change in tone variation. The study drew conclusion and
provided adequate recommendations for further studies.
Introduction
Language as an ubiquitous species- specific human attribute is an interesting yet a complex
phenomenon or concept of study. Language as a system of communication is therefore,
considered as a correlation of meaning, with signals to enable people to exchange ideals through
observable sequence of sounds. These sounds however, do not make meaningful utterances in
isolation, but it is when the smallest units called phonemes are combined systematically
according to the sound system of a given language (phonology) that meaning can be established.
Language according to Edward Sapir (1921:26) is defined as "a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating ideals, emotions desires by means of a system of
voluntarily produced symbols".
The idea of species specificity give rise to the human unique family and thus, elevate
humans in the rest of the animal kingdom, since it is only humans that make meaningful sounds,
Thus, cats mew, dogs bark, elephants trumpet, snake hiss, sheep and goats bleat, hyenas laugh,
hens cluck, but only humans can speak in the true sense of the word. It is to this essence that
Essien (2000) in Emenajo (1990:43) opined that “language is not only one man's greatest [but it
is] most complex and most enigmatic possession, it is the quintessence of his humanity. A
community that neglects its language, neglects what Chomsky (1968) calls “Human essence" and
a nation that does not recognize her linguistic character and seeks to promote it loses her mental
and cultural heritage and validity.

In describing an object or a thing, the form and its processes are not left out, the form of
which a thing is made up of, the processes or what a form is, the state of the object or a thing will
be analyzed and as such, this research is not an exception. It is the study of tones in Tiv non-
segmental phonology. Language as an instrument of communication has various forms and
levels at which it operates or is analyzed. These levels include the level of sound ( phonetics and
phonology) , the level of form comprising morphology and syntax and lastly the level of
meaning technically called " semantics ", which comprises of semiotics, pragmatics and
discourse analysis which all human languages are rooted upon.

This research work is on the first aspect of language (sound) under which the study of
tones in Tiv non-segmental phonology. Phonology is the study of the sound system of a given
language, while phonetics is the scientific study of sound system of all human languages without
reference to a particular language, unlike phonology, whose study gears towards particular
language sound system like Tiv , Etulo phonology etc. Phonology is divided into segmental
(phonemes) and non-segmental phonology; This research deals with an aspect of non-segmental
phonology, which is the study of tones in Tiv non segmental phonology.

Non-segmental Phonology is divided into: tone, tone , intonation, stress and tonology.
For this research, the focus is basically on the study of Tiv tones in non-segmental phonology.
Tones refers to distinct level of sounds that affords the meaning in a given language. In
linguistics, the tone of a given language functions as the perceived meaning. In order words, tone
of the sounds over time function distinctively.
 Tone is the fundamental linguistic concept of pitch; where the tone change in tone of a
unit over time affects the semantic meaning of a sound. tone also indicates intonation in the
toneaccent language. According to Crystal quoted in Anyanwu (1998). Tonemeasured in unit
called Mels is the attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which a sound may be ordered on a
scale from "low to high". It is an auditory phonetic feature, corresponding to some degree with
acoustic feature frequency. It should be noted that, tone which is the focus of this current study is
inseperetable from pitch.

The Tiv People and Language

The geographical position of the Tiv people according to Bohaman and Paul (1969:9) and
Rubingh (1969:58) is between 60 30 and 8 0 10 north contribute and 8 0 and 10 0 east contribute.
The Tiv share, borders with the Chamba and Jukum of Taraba state in the North with the Igede
(Benue) Iyala, Gakem and Obudu of Cross River to the South, there is also an international
boundary between the Tiv and the Republic of Cameron at the South Eastern angle of the ethnic
groups location. They are among the minority ethnic groups in Nigeria numbering about six
million individuals according to 2014 estimates , they occupy the middle belt states of Benue,
Taraba , Nasarawa and Plateau, few are also found in Cross River and Adamawa states of
Nigeria and in Cameron.

Historical background of the Tiv People

There are numerous submissions about the origin of the Tiv people, however we are in
agreement with Torkula (2006:1) that “Although different views are held about the Tiv Origin,
the version that commands the popularity and currency is that which traces their origin to the
Bantu people who once inhabited the central African continent in the Shaba area of the present
Democratic republic of Congo”. Abraham (1934: 6-7) for instance compiled a list of 67 Tiv
words and juxtaposed them with the words of Bantu Nyaza , with striking similarity on both
phonetics and semantics. Abraham (1934:5) concludes that, they (Tiv) are “ real Bantu “ and
subsequently that they came from the Congo region . Another linguistic piece of evidence has to
do with the present writers family name of [“Tsenongu”] which is Tiv and which ended with an
‘o’ (as done by many Tiv without any semantic harm) it is the name of a town of 300.000 people
in the present Democratic Republic of Congo ; such pieces of linguistic evidence testify to the
fact that Tiv actually migrated from the Congo, from there they passed through several places
before settling in the present location. The main occupation of the Tiv is subsistence farming ,
they regard yam farming as their birthright and commit themselves to it with religious
dedication.
The migration of the Tiv people is understood based on the oral tradition. Various
scholars documented these migration stories for easier understanding as observed by Awa.
According to Rubingh (1969:62), the Tiv all agree that their various original home was to the
south east in Cameroon. The Tiv are uncertain as to when they began their migration north
ward , but it was probably about eleven generation ago, this according to Rubingh cited in
Downes (2016:65), The general migration of the Tiv people into the Benue valley began
around 1800, they settled by the River Benue in large numbers by 1850. The various clans
shifted position until 1890 when the boundaries where rather well established and prominent
settlement undertaken.

Dzurgba (2007:26) like others traced the homeland of the Tiv nation to Swem. He
opined that the Tiv people migrated from swem to their present location in Benue state. Dzurgba
said a province in Cameroon is an equivalent of a state such as Benue state as found in Nigeria.
Of the three Cameroonian subdivisions, Akwaya sub- division has been revealed and identified
by the study as the ancestral homeland of the Tiv. Swem has also been revealed and identified as
the homeland of the Tiv people. Swem exists in Akwaya sub-division, or Akwaya local
government area. In Akwaya, there are range of mountains and the highest of them all is referred
to as mt. Swem, even by the people of Akwaya. The study has therefore confirmed the Tiv's
claim that they had once lived as a single community on a mountain called Swem. The location
of Swem that had been largely indicated as lying to the South-east of Tivland has been revealed
and identified as Akwaya sub- division in the southwest province in the South and south western
Cameron.

Dzurgba further asserts that, Swem was flat at the top and crops were grown on it.
Because Swem was a long mountain range with a flat top, the Tiv a single community, would
settle on top of the mountain for security reasons. During the period of migration or human
movements, worldwide, war was the only means of diplomacy or negotiation. Territorial
integrity and security of life and property depended largely on military victory. These were
probably the reason why the Tiv settled on the long flat top of Swem. Dzurgba explains further
that when the population grew and became too large for the Swem settlement the Tiv had to
move down to look for an agrarian Land. But that was not immediately available at the Swem
vicinity. Also, often racial groups had already settled around the mountain range in Akwaya in
particular and South-west Cameron in general. It was on this note that the Tiv followed River
Katsina-Ala from Cameroon down to the Benue valley where they found enough agrarian land
for themselves (Akpenpuun Dzurgba 2007:29). We can therefore conclude that, the Tiv family
migrated from Swem to Akwaya division of Cameroon and finally settled in the Benue Valley of
central Nigeria. Scholars of Tiv nation documented that in the course of Tiv migration to their
present place of stay, they came in contact with different ethnic tribes, who already occupied the
present Benue valley. Such as : Jukum , Etulo Abakwa, Chamba, Idoma, Igede, Udam, Ugee and
other tribes. However, due to the Tiv military strength, the Tiv people overcame these tribes and
sent them away and subsequently occupied the present Benue Valley.

Typological classification of the Tiv language

Different scholars have different opinions as to the language family of the Tiv language,
According to Abraham (1934: 7) cited in Mkerga (2016: 7) showcased a list of 67 Tiv words and
justaposed the with the words of Bantu Nyanza showing striking similarities in both their
semantic and phonetics. To this submission, Abraham concluded that Tiv language is real Bantu.
In the words of Yina (2011) The Tiv language is traced to : Niger Congo, Kwa-Benue, Bantoid
and of the Bantu language family. We can therefore conclude that, Tiv is of real Bantu language
family.
There are no dialects among the speakers of the Tiv language. According to Wegh (2003) in
Orban (2005: 3)
There is little to hinder mutual intelligibility among the numerous
speakers of the Language (Tiv). The only noticeable differences are
traceable to sociolinguistics effects of language in contact situations
leading to linguistic variations and even cultural interference among
the various ethnic groups living at the periphery of the Tiv language.
Sugh (2006:5) confirms this assertion when he said, Tiv is one of the very few languages in the
world which have little dialectal variations, there is little to prevent intelligibity amongs it’s
speakers. Yina (2011 ) also summits that the Tiv language though widely spoken around the
globe has no dialectal variations.

Phonology

It is the study of how units of sounds work to bring out meaning in a particular language. We
will speak for instance, of sound units like /æ /, / e /, /i /, /ͻ/, /u/ (vowels) or consonant sound
units like / b /, / t /, / p /, e.t.c as forming of English sounds system, referring to phonology. It
is essentially a description of the system of sound in any human language of the world.

In the words of Akmajian. (2001:109) “phonology” is the branch of linguistics that

studies human language”. Katamba (1989) sees the same concepts as “the branch of linguistics
which examines the ways in which sound are used systematically in different languages to form
words and utterances” for chahur, (2014 :108), it is all about certain sounds and their functions
being identified with a specific language.

The sounds we have mentioned above, for example, and many others can be used
sequentially to produce syllables and words in English. The speech process continues with
patterns of stress and intonation, which are found indispensable for the proper function of those
sounds. We may say therefore, that those individual sound units and the aspect of stress and
intonation constitute the phonology of English. We would also notice specific sounds or features
of speech in other languages. That is why we can speak of the sounds for Hausa, pronunciation,
those of Tiv, Igbo, Idoma e.t.c. You may hear then of Hausa phonology, Igbo phonology, the
phonology of Idoma Yoruba or English as identified earlier. The phonology of every language is
divided into: Consonants and vowels.

Segmental Phonology

In an attempt to bring out the meaning of phonology, we had referred continually to

individual sound units that are operational in particular language called phonemes. These are
vowels and consonants which represent an aspect of the phonic material. By the phonic material
we are referring to totality of what we hear from the human speech: what we describe as
segmental and non-segmental.

The term phoneme is used to define the minimal segment referring to vowel and
consonant that is capable of making one word look semantically different from another word. /l/
and /r/ for instance, are said to be different phonemes in English because they cause the
difference in meaning between Lug and Rug or Load and Road. By “minimal “segment” it is
meant that the phoneme units cannot be broken or divided further into smaller meaningful units.
This relates with Gimson’s definition of phoneme as “ the smallest contrastive linguistic unit
which may bring about a change of meaning” (Gimson, 1980; in Atoye, 2003 :323).

Supra-segmental/Non-segmental Phonology.

This means the study of phonology above the segmental level; it can be seen that, discussion of
phonology in the foregoing section is dominated by segmental aspect which is concerned with
the sound segments. i.e, the smallest speech sound into which words are divided. Yet, it could be
seen in our definition of phonology earlier in the discussion, that the phonic material is found not
only by the segments, or the phonematic units. This is a non-segmental category which is also
referred to as the non-segmental or plurisegment of phonology. Here, the concern is not the
segments, but the characteristics of speech that go beyond single segments, single segments to
function within the domains of the syllables, words, phrases, clauses and sentences. At this level,
mentioned is usually made of prosodic features: the melodic feature of speech that take care of
how pronunciation works at the level of words and long expressions. As seen in stress,
intonation, toneand tone for example.

Akmajian, Dermers, former and Harnish (2001:101) assert that phonology is the subfield
of linguistics that studies the structure and the systematic patterning of sounds in human
languages. The term phonology is used in two ways: on one hand, it refers to the description of
the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds like
Tiv and Idoma language. e.t.c, on the other hand, it refers to the general theory of human
language that is concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound system (i.e
properties reflected in many, if not all human languages).

The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objectives are to
establish what the phonemes, in the phonemic inventory of a language. To Jones (2006 : 388) as
noted by Sokpo (2016) it is the study of the sound system of a language; Mathew (2007 : 300)
defines phonology as “ the study system generally”. He states that in many practical description,
and most general description until the 1960s, the central concern of phonology is the phoneme.
Yul – Ifode (2008: 20) attests that phonetics and phonemics make up the two subdivisions of
phonology. This is because phonology deals with the production, identification, classification
and distribution of significant speech sounds found in individual languages. He stresses further
that phonology studies the significant speech sounds, the sound system and structure of the
language.

Crystal (2008: 365 – 6) sees phonology as “ a branch of linguistics which studies the
sound system of languages; out of the very wide range of sounds the human apparatus can
produce, and which are studied by phonetics, only a relatively small number are used
distinctively in any given language. The sounds are organized into a system of contrast, which
are analyzed into terms or phonetics distinctive features or other such phonological units,
according to the theory used.

To Ladefoged and Johnson (2011:309) “phonology is the description of system and

pattern of sounds that occur in a language’. Similarly, Fromkin, Rodman and Hyam (2014: 225)
attest that phonology is the study of how speech form patterns in phonology. The aim of
phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sounds found in language, and to make
general possible statement about the nature of sound systems in languages of the world.

For Nyitar (2015:102) in Sokpo (2016), sees phonology in Tiv as ‘ Asember shin
agbenger a Kwaghorun Ken Zwa u Mbaior Shin Ikyulor ve er Shin ve lamen aa miyo,Fonoloji u
Zwa u Ikyuior Morn Zugh aa Ikyuior igen Manyange ga cii, Ka nahan fonologi u Ibgo, Alago
e.t.c kpa ve lu kposu kposu ie. Translated as speech sounds,[are] perculiar to particular
languages; no two languages have the same pholnological rules, for example, Igbo, Alago e.t.c

Phonology of the Tiv language

Like other developed languages, the Tiv language have a well-developed orthography
which is used (i.e phonology at the phoneme level) and the patterning of sounds system which
give the systematic interpretation of words and phrases Nyitar, (2015 : 10 – 26). This is the fact
that, language expresses one culture and identity, Nyitar in his book, outlined the phonological
patterns of Tiv and the system of rules that guide its formation.

Tiv Vowel sounds

Crystal (2006:571) posits that vowel is one of the general categories used for the
classification of speech sounds, the other being consonants. Vowels can be defined in terms of
phonetics and phonology. Phonetically, there are sounds articulated without complete closure in
the mouth or degree of narrowing which will produced audible friction; the air escapes evenly
over the mouth, the vowels are said to be oral, if some air are simultaneously related through the
nose, the vowel are nasal. In addition to, phonetic classification of vowels, reference would
generally be made to two variable, the first of which is easily describable, the second much so:
(a) the position of the lips – whether rounded, spread, or neutral; (b) the part of the tongue raised
and the height to which it moves. According to Sokpo –R (2016) vowels are referred to as “Vaa
Ikyenge” while Nyitar T.D (2015) refers to vowel as “Mun - Mun.
The vowels in Tiv are classified into two : (a) Monothongs (single vowels) and (b) dipthongs
(gliding vowels).

Monothong is defined from a Greek word monothong meaning single sound. Monothong
is a vowel whose qulity is relatively constant, and the contrast of this monopthong is dipthongs
or Eripthongs. Similarly Jones (2006: 331) asserts that monothong is ‘a’ single vowel”. It is
also .known as pure vowel’ and ‘single vowel’.

According to Nyitar (2015:110), there are twelve (12) pure vowel and ten (10) dipthongs
in the Tiv language. The number of monopthongs in Tiv is highly disputed as many scholars
have different views based on their studies. To Udu (2004) many Tiv scholars duplicated some
vowel sounds to elongate their analogy. For example: /a/ as /aa/ and / u / as / uu /. Though Nyitar
stated that the Tiv language has the following vowel:

/i/ as in ati, (names) /i:/=hii, (start) /e/=ve (them), /a/=ka (is), /a:/=paa (to cut), /ɔ /=mỏm
(one), /o:/=soo (like), ɔ:/=moor (transplant), /ʊ/=kucha (calabash), /u:/=kuul (cover), and
/3:/=meer (doze). Both long and short vowels are categorized.

i. Front vowel such as : /i/, /i:/, /e/, and /a/. Frontal Vowels: These are vowels produced
with the tongue raised towards the hard palate. In this case, the /i/ vowel assumes the
most forward position. The vowel /u/ on the other hand has the least degree of frontness
ii. Central vowel such as: /3:/.During the production of centre vowels, part of the tongue,
that is, between the front and the back is raised.
iii. Back vowel such as: /a:/, / ɔ /, / ɔ: /, /o:/,/ʊ/, and /u:/.
In articulation of the back vowels, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate,
the most backward of these vowel sounds as already mentioned is the vowel /u/.
Height of the Tongue
The height of the tongue can only be high, mid and low. Sometimes we have the
combination of mid low, mid high. In the articulation of the vowel /u/, /i/ and /i:/ the
tongue is in high position in which the jaw is half close, but in the production of /e/ and
/ͻ/, the height of the tongue is mid high while the jaw is half closed. The vowel /a/ has the
lowest height. Articulatorily, the tongue is at its lowest position. In other to position the
tongue as low as possible, the jaw is lowered. In which case, it is open, therefore, /a/, /i/
and /e/ are examples of low vowel while /ͻ/ and /a:/ are examples of mid low vowels.
Shape of the lips
The shape of the lips in the production of the vowel sounds is either rounded or
unrounded, the vowel /u/ is rounded and /a/ has the spread shape while /e/, /i/ etc are
unrounded.

Diphthong
A diphthong is simply defined as a combination of two pure vowels. It is a sound segment which
is formed by two different words. In English, like any other languages, it is possible for a word
to contain two distinct sounds in a position. Consider for instance the word – sky / skai / what
appears after the “sk” is a union of a & i which provides the /ai/ sound.

The situation in the Tiv language is conflicting, as many scholars believe that, the Tiv diphthong
is more of doubling of each sound which in English is regarded as diphthongs, for instance /a/ as
Faga could be represented /aa/ as Fagaa Which in English vowel such could be regarded as /a:/
In recent time Nyitar and Sokpo unimously agree that such situation could be applied in the Tiv
language as well.

Diphthong is derived from a Greek word “diplhthongges”, which from French is diphthongue
(modern diphthong) in Latin, meaning double sound. It is the vowel that start with one quality
and make on another direction of another quality (Sokpo 2016).

It is the gliding of a sound or change from one vowel to another. It also means the union of two;
vowel sounds spoken/pronounced together. Many scholars view diphthongs in different
directions through referring to emerging of vowel sounds within the string of ulterance.

Challer and Weirner (1994:34) define a diphthong as a vowel that changes within the same
single syllables Similarly, Binket (1999:56) sees a diphthong as a sound sequence consisting of
vowels followed by a glide. To Jones, (2006:144) “diphthong is a sound in which there is glide
from one vowel quality to another. Crystal (2008:147) also has the same view as he states that, it
is phonetic classification of vowel sounds on the basics of their manner of articulation. Some
scholars view diphthongs as combination of two phonemes.

In the Tiv language, diphthongs are called “Mnyer u hiin sha Ikyenge I gen man kulen ken var
Ikyenge I gen”.

Shoja and Udu (2012) revised Tiv orthography and remodeled the diphthongs in Tiv phonology
and classified them as follows:

/ai/ as - kai (exclamation !)

/ei/ as ei (No)

/ia/ as Hia (bone)

/ie/ as iel (lies)

/ue/ as Wuel (Moon)

/ou/ as vough (correct)

/ɔu/ as vor (To be tired)

/ua/ as Adua (Sunday)

/io/ as Ior (people)

/iͻ / as Ion (breath).

From the above stated ten diphthongs, the Tiv orthography is rooted upon in terms of it
diphthongs.

Consonants

Attempt here is to see sounds that are distinct with vowel sound. Which are called
consonants sounds. In the word of Crystal (2008) consonants can be defined phonetically as
“sounds made by closure or narrowing in the vocal tracts so that airflow is either completely
blocked or so restricted that audible frictions is pronounced”. It is seen as the unit of sound that
is produced or articulated with blockage in the air movement. Which may be total or partial in its
restriction.

The researcher in Tiv phonology sees this concept or called this concept (consonant) as
thus: ‘Ahendana Ikyenge’, in order words it is called in Tiv as: Mba-Mtondo mba akengev! The
word “ahendan” means obstruction/ blockage which is either total or partial restriction of air
stream. This agrees with Richard and Schmidt (2010: 120) that consonant is a speech sound,
where the air stream from the lungs is either completely blocked (stop), partially blocked or
where an opening is so narrow that the air escape with audible friction (fricative). In some Some
consonants (Nasal) the air stream is blocked in the mouth but allowed to escape through the
nose.

According to Bagu. (2015: 51- 52) consonant is defined as ‘a sound produced by

articulation involving some degree of constriction of the mouth passage: The constriction is
sufficient to produce audible friction at the point of narrowing, and it also includes complete
blocking of the passage. There are basically four factors that are used in the classification and
description of consonant sounds. In first place, consonants are classified according to their (1)
place of articulation, this refers to the organ or organs of speech responsible for the production of
a sound. (2) it is also classified based on manner of articulation, which refers to how a given
consonant sound is produced.

The third is the voicing. This is also a crucial point in consonant description and
classification. This is determined by the position of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are
relaxed, air passes through the glottis and the sound thus produced are voiceless. If on the other
hand, the cords come together to closed the glottis, the force of air pushing its way through
causes the strings to vibrate and the sounds produced will be voiced.
The fourth in classifying consonants is based on the position of the soft palate. If the soft
is raised to block the nasal track, it means the air employed in the process of production can pass
through the mouth. The sound thus produced will be oral sounds. If on the other hand, the soft
palate is lowered, it means air can pass out through the nasal cavity. The sound to be produced
will be nasal. This above situation is obtainable in the English language as well as the Tiv
language.
a) Using the first criterion, which is place of articulation, we can further subdivide these
plosive, into:
i. Bilabia plosive : /p/ and /b/ : this are plosives.

b) Using the second criterion that is manner of articulation, consonant can be subdivided
into: (i) lateral, (ii) Glides and (iii) plosives sounds
Plosives are those consonantal sounds which during their production, the air
stream from the lungs is completely stopped for a brief moment then followed by
an exposure release. /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ are all plosives.
Generally, some Tiv consonant sounds are similar to English sounds judging from the three
criteria of consonant classification, i.e. place of articulation, manner of articulation, and the state
of the glottis (voiced and voiceless). Any phonological feature above the segment is called non-
segmental phonology. To Chalk and Weiner (1994: 386), nonsegmental “is the feature of
intonation extending beyond the phoneme”. nonsegmental is the term used in phonetics and
phonology to refer to a vocal effect that extend over or than one segment of sound in an utterance
such as pitch, stress, or juncture ( Crystal 2008:466). To Ladefoged (2011: 3-10) it is a phonetic
feature such as stress, tone and intonation which is not the property of single consonant or vowel.
To Fromkin, Redmond and Hyman (2014:225) see nonsegmental features as an aspect of speech
that involves more than a single vowel /consonant.

Tone

Tone simply put is the distinctive pitch level of a syllable. Tones constitute a supra-
segmental feature supra-imposed on the segment entity, example, syllable, morpheme, or word,
so that such entity comes out with two, three, four or more different meaning. Describes tone as
‘a feature of the lexicon being described in terms of prescribed pitches for syllable sequences of
pitches for syllables or sequences of pitches for morphemes or words’.
The above statement defines tone in terms of the morphemes which in turn are
amalgamated to form words. Since word-level tones may be assigned by rule, “lexical
realisation” refers to the output of lexical phonology, not necessarily underlying representations.
Binkert (1999:188) defines tone as ‘a pitch or change in pitch in a syllable of a word that is
associated with a difference in the meaning’. Crystal (2008:486) asserts that tone is a term used
in phonology to refer to ‘the distinctive pitch level of a syllable.
 Childs (2003:176) asserts that tone is not hard to understand conceptually — it has a
straightforward acoustic correlate in pitch or fundamental frequency (F0). In its prototypical
form in Africa, every syllable or mora has its own tone, and the inventory will consist of two
level tones, a high and a low, and one or two contour tones, a rise and/or a fall. Beyond these
statements, however, straightforward characterisations are more difficult. Even in a “simple”
tone language, the analysis can be complicated (Newman 1999). The difficulties extend into how
to analyse tone or rather, how to analyse tone in a given language. Sometimes no agreed upon
analysis is possible. Questions arise as to whether the analysis should be tonal or accentual,
autosegmental or metrical. Different analyses are proposed for the same language, sometimes by
the same person (Odden 1999: 188–89).
One way to understand tone is by contrasting it with a more familiar prominence system,
lexical stress, as found in English. English stress has a number of acoustic correlates: although
pitch is the most important of the cues, loudness, lengthening, vowel quality, etc., are also
important. Tone is typically limited to F0 differences. Stress has nowhere near the mobility of
tone, as exemplified in several rules of tone spreading and shifting given below. Stress is
assigned to syllables; tone can be, too, but it can also be assigned to smaller units than the
syllable, the mora. Khoisan languages behave slightly differently. Khoekhoe, for example, uses
“paradigmatic displacement of melodies rather than feature changing rules” (Haacke 1999: 73),
paying attention to units larger than the syllable.
Fudge (2009:33) says tone is the use of suprasegmental parameters to differentiate lexical
items. Normally each morpheme (root, prefix or suffix) has its own tonal pattern associated with
the string of phonemes of which it is made up. Just as segmental elements may undergo
processes of changes (often assimilation) because of neighbouring elements. Tones may also be
modified because of neighbouring tones. Sometimes a morpheme may consist purely of a tonal
pattern with no segmental material (phonemes) associated with it. Thus, in many languages,
different tenses of a verb may be differentiated by tonal means alone. Again, in some languages
relative clauses are signalled by tonal differences rather than by the presence of relative pronouns
realised by phonemes.
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2014:583) define tone as the contrastive pitch of syllables
in tone languages. In the study of intonation, a sequence of tones constitutes a contour or tone
unit. In Hallidayan analysis, the division of an utterance into tone groups is called tonality. The
most prominent tone in a tone unit may be referred to as a nuclear tone. The organisation of
tonal structure within a non-linear phonological model (the nature of tonal features and the
location of tonal linkage) is sometimes called tonal geometry. The historical development of a
tonal language from an atonal one is known as tone genesis. In many languages, the tone carried
by a word is an essential feature of the meaning of that word (lexical tone).
Theoretical Framework

Among the various schools of phonology, generative phonology is well-known because it has
become a standard theory against which most other work in phonology has been measured and
evaluated. It is a branch of phonology that came to prominence with Chomsky and Halle's (1968)
"Sound Pattern of English" wherein their aim is to eliminate and factor out redundancy from
phonological analyses by using phonological rules.

Phonological Rules
Goldsmith (1993: 66) defines phonological rules as "mapping between two different levels of
sound representation:

(1) the abstract underlying level and (2) the surface level" to portray how speakers go from the
abstract representations stored in their mind to the actual sounds they articulate when they speak.
Generally, phonological rules begin with the underlying representation of a sound and yield the
surface form that is actually spoken . An underlying form may have multiple surface forms; this
is referred to as 'allophony', e.g., the English plural suffix may be pronounced: /s/ in books, /z/ in
cars, or /əz/ in buses. "All these forms are stored mentally as the same s, but the surface
pronunciations are derived through a phonological rule". Examples of phonological rules are the
following:

1. "Intervocalic alveolar flapping" is a process through which the consonants /t/ and /d/ are
changed via a rule into a quick flap consonant in words such as (butter and writer) by
speakers of American English dialects. The stop consonants /t, d/ are changed into a flap
when they are preceded and followed by vowels, the first of which is stressed while the
second one is unstressed. This phonological rule is represented by the following re-write
rule:
[+stop, +consonant,+alveolar]→[ flap] / [+vowel,+stressed] _ [+vowel,-stressed]

2. Devoicing is an allophonic rule via which voiced consonants tend to be devoiced at the
end of words. [+cons,+voice]→[+cons,-voice] /-
The theory of generative phonology considered every speech and (phoneme) as being made up of
a bundle of distinctive features, which are either present [+] in a sound or absent [-] in another.

The aim of generative phonology is to assign correct phonological presentation to an

utterance. It proposes two level of phonological representation, the underlying and surface
presentations. The underlying representation analyses an utterance by identifying the distinctive
phonemes in the utterance while the surface representation identifies both distinctive and non-
distinctive phonemes in the utterances.

Now what determines the focus of generative phonology is whether there are rules or
principles guiding the pronunciation of all human language and whether these principles can be
grouped or harmonized to set the underlying representation of how language can be organized
(Summerstein 1977; Ikekeonwu 1996).

Ikekeonwu (1996) throws more light on the concept of underlying representation by saying
that GP assumes two levels of analysis: the surface and the underlying levels. The underlying
level known as systematic phonemic level contains all the distinctive features parameters and
whatever modification that are distinctive. Ikekeonwu’s position blends with Katamba (1989:69)
who assert as follows:

We recognized at least two levels of representation of speech; the phonetic level and
the phonemic level. At the phonetic level task is to provide an accurate description of the
characteristic of the sounds that occurs in speech. At the phonemic level the emphasis is
on these properties of sound that are functionally significant in the formation of words
and utterances.

The collection, presentation and analysis of data in this current study is anchor on the
tenets provided by the proponent of generative phonology. The theory is adopted for this
study because only its provisions as discussed above can best be used in the analysis of
the Tiv tone.

Research Methodology
Data for this current study were sourced from secondary sources of data collection, where
several published works and unpublished ones, lecture notes on the subjects under consideration
were consulted. The published once were used and their authors duly acknowledged. The
researcher’s intuitive knowledge of the Tiv language was also a key source of data.
The results of the data are presented using analytical approach. This is the juxtaposition
or side by side placement of the tone/tone to know if really there are variations in meaning and at
the end of the presentation, brief summary and necessary recommendation are made.
Words Showing the Levels of Tiv Tone

s/no Pitch Word Gloss Grammatical Category

1 H Tár World Noun
2 L T`ar Spread Verb
3 M Tar enjoyment Noun
4 H ´kile Wash Verb
5 L `kile Decantation Noun
6 H Ḱuma Pierce Verb
7 L `kuma Enough Adverb
8 L `wua Grind Verb
9 H Ẃua Kill Verb
10 L `Tor King Noun
11 M Tor Insert Verb
12 H ´Tor Pestle Noun
13 M Tor House Noun
14 L `Tyôh Kingsmen Noun
15 H ´Tyôh Buttocks Noun
16 H ´yenge Mathematics Noun
17 L `yenge Look Verb
18 H K´per Tomorrow Adverb
19 L `Kper Net Noun
20 M Kper confused Adjective
21 H Y´ange Sun Noun
22 L `Yange Restrict Verb
23 H S´ule Farm Noun
24 M Sule Coin Noun
25 L `Sule Death Noun
26 H S´ule Cold Verb
27 H A´kondu Clothes Noun
28 L `Akondu Block Verb
29 H H´ule Scaraway Verb
30 L `Hule Twisted Adjective
31 L `Kaa Measure Verb
32 H K´aa Fries Verb
33 H P´ev Vally Noun
34 L `Pev Make a hole Verb
35 H ´kem Scooping cup Noun
36 L `kem Diary Noun
37 H S´hie Rub Verb
38 L `Shighe Time Adverb
39 H V´ande Rock Noun
40 L `Vandé Earlier Adverb
41 H N´ger Plenty Adverb
42 L `Nger Write Verb
43 L `Nger Spots Adjective
44 L `Gbande Drum Noun
45 H ´Gbande Plate Noun
46 L H`ii Harma tan Noun
47 M Hii Magic Nouns
48 H H´ii Start Verb
50 H A´kpe Bottles Noun
51 L A`kpe He/she is dead Verb
52 L L`u Stay Verb
53 H L´u Mortal Noun
54 L `Mar Build Verb
55 L `Mar Born Verb
56 H Akpa Bags Noun
 57 M Akpa Cain Noun
58 L `Akpa Gutter Noun
59 H ´Ter Father Noun
60 L `Ter To mention Verb

61 H Y´ese Scorpion Noun

62 L `Yese To nurse Verb
63 H O´ngo Hears Verb
64 L `Ongo Fetch Verb
65 H W´uhe Coldness Noun
66 L `Wuhe Uproot/close Verb
67 H N´dohor Cold Noun
68 L N`dohor To calm down Verb
69 H ´atese Pastor’s wife Noun
70 L `atese To teach Verb
71 H Hegh´ New Adjective
72 L He`gh To shame Verb
73 H Il´ Black Adjective
74 L `Il Steal Verb
76 H ´cigh Drug Noun
77 L `cigh Covered Verb
78 H I´wa Dog Noun
79 L `Iwa To insert or put Verb

Source: Field Work 2020

Tones in the Tiv Language

The researcher observed that there are basically three levels of tone in the Tiv language. The
high (H), mid (M) and low (L) tones . The study observed that in the Tiv language the tone of a
word either raises high (H), mid (M) or low (H) depending on the speaker as well as the
speaker’s intention. That is the kind of meaning intended to achieve in the utterance. According
to Bloomfield (1998) in Bassy Andian Okon (2000:24) “In human language every utterance is
characterized by differing degrees of utterances”. This entails that the level at a time in one’s
speech is essential to the meaning. For example, the English word compound (COMpound) when
stressed on the first syllable, with high level toneis a noun (the rules of stress in English
language) and when stressed on the second syllable (comPOUND), it becomes a verb. The same
with contrast, insult, object, comfort, import e.t c the list is endless, which are caused by
tonevariations based on the intension of the speaker. To this end, Nyitar (2015: 10- 26) opines
that ‘this tone variation is to express one’s culture and identity.
Analysis of tones in Tiv Language.

Nyitar in his book outlined the phonological patterns of Tiv the language, as stated above in Tiv
words – Agba

ML= agba` (verb)

HL = agba´ (noun)

1.

Agba` (verb)

2.

Agba´ (noun)

To Taaji’s (2016) Auto segmental analysis of tone in the Tiv language ‘’agrees that the variation
in one’s communication gives rise to different grammatical structures’’ as exemplified above.
The Tiv language has other examples as follows:

3. Tór (H) –pestle (Noun)

4. Tor (M) – Insert (verb)

5. `Tor – (king) Noun (L)

It can be observed that the example given above have three different tone variation, the high
pitch, the mid and the Low tone variation in Tiv non-segmental phonology. The degree of
loudness here is characterised relatively by the communication intent of the speaker. Nyitar
(2015:53) states that ‘’there are two basic tones in Tiv language. According to him, the tone will
either be high (H) or low (L). Yina (2009) however, reaffirms that the Tiv language has three
tones of High (H), mid (M) and low (M) as presented above.

The variation in the study of Tiv tone is relatively on functional based. For example:

6. `Akilegh – (L) – Verb (wash)

7. ´Akilegh – (H) – H – Noun (Decantation)

9. ´Kuma – H – verb – (chock)

10. `Kuma – L – Adverb – (enough)

The above examples express different meaning in their tone variation, the first verb – `Akilegh
with low (L) tone variation to express the communication intend of the speaker and ´Akilegh –
Noun stating the state of formation with different tone variations (H). This situation continues in
the word ´Kuma – Verb, `Kuma Adverb (H-L)pitch.

Consider other examples of Tiv words produced with different tonelevels to mean different
things below:

12. ´Tar (world) :(noun) High tone(H)

13. Tar (spread): (verb) mid tone(M)

14. `Tyoh (Kinsmen): (Noun) low tone(L)

15. Tyoh (Buttocks): (Noun) mid tone(M)

16. ´Ayenge (mathematics): (Noun) high tone (H)

17. `Ayenge (Look): (Verb) Low tone(L)

18. ´Kper (Tomorrow): (Adverb) High tone(H)

19. `Kper (Net): (Noun) Low tone(L)

20. ´Yange (Sun): (Noun) high tone(H)

21. `Yange (Restrict): (Verb) low tone(L)
22. ´Sule (farm): (Noun) high tone(H)

23. `Sule (Coin): (Noun) low tone(L)

24. sule (cold): (Noun) mid tone(M)

25. ´Hulegh (scaraway): (verb) high tone(H)

26. `Hulegh (twisted): (adjective) low tone(L)

27. `Kaa (measure): (verb) low tone(L)

28. ´Kaa (Fries): (verb) high tone(H)

29. ´Peugh (Valley): (Noun) high tone(H)

30. `Peugh (make a hole): (verb) low tone(L)

31. ´Akem (Scooping cup): (Noun) high pitch(H)

32. `Akem (Diary): (Noun) low tone(L)

33. ´Shier (Rob): (verb) high tone(H)

34. `Shier (time): (adverb) low tone(L)

35. ´Vande (Rock): (Noun) high tone(H)

36. `Vande (Earlier): (Adverb) low tone(L)

37. ´Nger (plenty): (adverb) high tone(H)

38. `Nger (write): (verb) low tone(L)

39. `Gbande (drum): (noun) low tone(L)

40. ´Gbande (plate): (noun) high pitchss (H)

Functions of tone in Tiv Communication

Some of the functions of tone in Tiv communication include:
1. Tone distinguishes the meaning of words in a language
2. Tone distinguishes lexical classes of words in the Tiv language
3. Tone determines the position of words in Tiv sentences. These and others are vividly
discussed below.
It is pertinent to note that, tone is very important in the understanding of Tiv language. Tone
behaves independently in Tiv language, therefore, it is important to do an analysis. Some items
are selected randomly from the data presented above to explain polysemous words. Data show
that tone determines the meaning of words in Tiv as well as their lexical class. This manifest in
speech variation. For example: The meaning of the word “Tar” with high (H) tone, means “ The
world”, while the same word “Tar” with low (L) tone means “spread”. The data also showed
that, tone also changes or has an effect on the lexical categories. In the above example for
instance, in the first instance with a high (H) tone is a noun while the later with a low tone (L) is
a verb. The word “Tar” with high tone means a noun as in “Va ya Tar”. Tar in this instance
means enjoyment (a noun). We can therefore summit that, in Tiv language, tone gives rise to
different tonal realization of word meaning as well as lexical class.
The word “Tor” with low (L) tone which means “king” is a noun while “Tor” with a high
(H) tone meaning “to insert” is a verb, the same word “Tor” with a high “H” meaning “pestle” is
a noun. “Tor” on high toneagain means “hut” and “Tor” at the same time means to pour which is
a verb on high pitch. This means that “Tor” can generate different meaning and word class. From
the examples given above, “Tor” (to insight) on high is a verb and at the same time “Tor” on the
high tonemeans to pour liquid etc while “Tor” on the low tone is a noun, means a king. This
tonerealization on word class is not static in Tiv language, it based on context. The same low
tonethat refers to a word as noun, the same noun in Tiv language could be on a high level
tonedepending on the noun and emphasis in the context of communication for example “ Ka T´or
wam” (it is my pestle) a noun case on the high level pitch. This entails that the phonological
structure of Tiv language can generate a number of meaning which is basic premises of
generative phonology, the theory which is in this work. The concept of the pronunciation of high
(H) and low (L) tonereflects the linguistics competence of the individual native speaker to
compute infinite number of sentences using the above word “Tor” with different class of word
realization.
The word “T´yoh” meaning buttocks (noun), can be realized on the high level pitch, but
when referring to ‘”T`yoh” as kingsmen, the toneis droped to low level pitch. This changes are as
a result of context of word use in Tiv language. This insight was noted by Chomsky (1965) in the
aspect of the theory of syntax, that generative phonology is not interested in the knowledge of
the language but the speakers underline’s ability to produce sentence and linguistic performance,
the actual production of these sentences in a given communication situation.
It is noted that in the Tiv language, nouns are the most words or class of words that are
produced with high (H) tonelevel, while verbs are produced with low (L) level pitch. Example,
“T´ar” noun (world), “T`ar” verb (spread), A`kilegh (to wash) on low-level , also “y`ange” (sun)
which is noun (H-level pitch), y´ange (restrict)verb (L-level pitch), “p´eugh” (valley) which is a
noun on the high level tonetone while “p`eugh” (an act of testing) is a verb (low level pitch). Yet
some words in Tiv has same level tonetone, that is, high or low but has different meaning. For
example, the word “A`kondu” (clothes) which is noun pronounce with high level tonetone can be
realize as verb “A`kondu” (to block) on the same level tonetone (H). This means that meaning
and context are major concern in the Tiv language use.
There are words in the Tiv language that can generate several meaning differentiated by
tonelevel tone. Such words either take different lexical categories or maintain same grammatical
categories depending on the toneand context of use . That is, words with up to two and more
different meaning. We can therefore summit that in the Tiv language, tonelevel determines the
meaning of words.
Examples of Variation in Meaning Marked by Tone in Tiv Phrases
57. Agbii a kaa´: (mark of things) Noun (H)

58. Agbii a kaa`: (Laying of things) Verb (L)

59. Mkaha´: (I till) Verb (H)

60. Mkaha`: (Difference) Verb (L)

61. Ityoh yam´: (my buttocks) Noun (H)

62. Ityoh yam`: (my kindred) Noun (L)

63. Atumba a na´: (Her breast) Noun (H)

64. Atumba a na`: (He/she pierce and gve)Verb (L)

65. Akpam am´ : (my bags) Noun (H)

66. Akpam am`: (He/her sexed me (L)

67. Ijende yam´: (my friend) Noun (H)

68. Ijende yam`: (my movements) (L)

69. Ahungwa vaa´?: (has Ahungwa come?) verb (H)

70. Ahungwa vaa`?: (grasshopper cried) verb (L)

71. Mkulem ma nyian´: (red oil) adjective (H)

72. Mkulem ma nyian`: (todays oil) adverb (L)
73. Sule wam´: (my farm) Noun (H)
74. Sule wam`: (my coin) Noun (L)

75. Akor abaver´: (to take news) Noun (H)

76. Akor abaver`: (to break) Verb (L)

77. Iche yam`: (my hair) Noun (L)

78 . Iche yam´: (my settlements) Noun (H)
79. Iche yam`: (my alter) Noun (L)

80. Ka bua u ii´: (iis cow) adjective (H)

81. Ka bua u ii`: (it’s a black cow) noun (L)

Source: Field work February 2020.

It can be observed in the data above that, the part of the phrase stressed is marked by tonal
indicators to indicate the tonevariations of the above stated phrase. The data also shows that there
are Tiv phrases structure that have different level of tonetone yet have same grammatical
category. For example, the phrase “ITYO yam” (my kingsmen) with a low level articulation can
mean different thing with the same phrase on the high tonelevel tone. For example, “Ityo yam”
(my buttocks) and “Iche yam” (my hair) first person pronoun with low level tonetone, the same
phrase on the high level tonetone will have different meaning, for example, “ICHE yam” (my
settlement). All the above examples have different pronunciation with the same phrase structure
but different tonelevel tone shows the flexibility of meaning changes in environment.
One significant point here is that, the low level tonetone phrases in Tiv language take
place in the first person’s singular position while the high level in Tiv takes the third person’s
point of view as shown in the above example.
The researcher also noticed that, there are significant changes that occur in the articulation
of the same phrase with different grammatical categories of those phrases and meaning, base on
the tonelevel (high or low). For example, the phrase “AKPAM am” (my bags), which is a noun
phrase pronounced with high level pitch, can be realized as verb on the low level tonetone
meaning a different thing. Example, “akpa am” (He/her sexed me). The emphases on the above
phrase is on one word “Akpa” which has served as a noun in the high level tonetone but function
as verb in the low level tonetone. The same thing with the following phrases: “Atumba na” (her
breast) noun on low level tonewith “ Atumba na” (he pierced and gave) verb with a high level
pitch, the emphases is on “Atumba” consider also “Agbii a kaa” (mark of things) a noun on high
level tonecan be realized as verb on low tonetone with different: Example “Agbii a kaa” (he
layed things) which is a verb. The emphases on this phrase is on one word, functioning as a noun
(Agbii) and at the same functioning as a verb “Agbii” (lays) with different grammatical category.
The same formation with the phrase “mkaha na” (difference) which is an adjectival phrase and it
will function as a verb phrase. Equally “mkaha na” (his manner of tealing) is a verb phrase on
the high level tonetone but noun on the low level tonetone. Others are “mkulen ma nyian” which
is an adjective on low level toneand an adverb on high level tone meaning (today’s oil). The
emphases in the above phrase is on the word “nyian” which is an adjective on low level tone and
the later an adverb on high level pitch.
Another important aspect to note in Tiv phrase structure is questioning method. A phrase in
Tiv changes its tonelevel if it is regarded as a question. For example: “Ahungwa vaa?” (did
Ahungwa come?) with a high level pitch, as a question but becomes a statement on low level
toneas in “Ahungwa vaa” meaning (The grasshopper cries).
Conclusion
The study concludes that, there are Tiv constructions that have different levels of tonetone yet
have same grammatical category. For example, the phrase “Ityo yam” (my kingsmen) with a low
level articulation can mean a different thing from the same phrase on the high tonelevel tone. For
example, “Ityo yam” (my buttocks).
The low level tonetone phrases in the Tiv language take place in the first person position
while the high level in Tiv takes the third person point of view.
There are significant changes that occur in the articulation of the same phrase with different
grammatical categories of those phrases and meaning, based on the tonelevel (high or low).
Tone in Tiv is very significant and play a key role as it aid the understanding of the Tiv
language. It also differentiates word meaning and class in some instance, thereby enlarging the
size of Tiv vocabulary.
There are polysemous words in Tiv that change class (lexical class) as a result of the change
in tone. That is, tonedetermines the meaning, pronunciation and lexical class of Tiv words.
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